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THE AUTHORS 1

PREFACE 1

CHAPTER 1 LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS 1

WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS? 2

1． Linguistics as a Science 2

2． Language and Linguistics 3

3． Origins and Functions of Language 5

4． Spoken and Written Language 8

5． Langue and Parole, Competence and Performance 10

6． Linguistics as a Field of Research 12

7． Different Approaches to Linguistics 13

8． Major Schools of Linguistics 14

CHAPTER 2 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY 20

WHAT ARE SPEECH SOUNDS? 21

1． Sounds and Letters 21

2． Production of Sounds 24

3． Classification of Sounds 26

4． Transcription of Sounds 31

5． Phonetics: Phones and Allophones 33

6． Phonology: Phonemes 34

7． Phonological Rules 36

8． Prosody: Intonation and Stress 38

CHAPTER 3 MORPHOLOGY 44

WHAT ARE WORDS? 45

1． Words and Word Classes 45

2． Morphs, Allomorphs and Morphemes 48

3． Types of Morphemes 49

4． Inflectional and Derivational Morphology 50

5． Word Formation Processes 53

CHAPTER 4 SYNTAX 65

WHAT IS GRAMMAR? 67

1． Grammar: Prescriptive and Descriptive 67

2． Grammaticality, Acceptability and Syntactic Ambiguity 68

3． Syntactic Structures 71

4． Syntactic Categories 74

5． Syntactic Functions 76

6． Types of Sentences 78

7． Types of Clauses 81

CHAPTER 5 SEMANTICS 86

WHAT IS MEANING? 87

1． Meaning, Sense and Reference 87

2． Levels of Meaning: Lexical and Sentential 89

3． Componential Analysis 93

4． Synonymy, Antonymy, Homonymy and Hyponymy 94

5． Entailment, Presupposition, Inconsistency, Contradiction, Tautology and Anomaly 100

6． Metaphorical Usage 101

7． Idiomatic Usage 104

CHAPTER 6 PRAGMATICS 109

WHAT IS LANGUAGE USE? 110

1． Semantics versus Pragmatics 110

2． Reference and Inference 113

3． Cohesion and Coherence 115

4． Locutionary, Illocutionary and Perlocutionary Acts 117

5． The Cooperative Principle 119

6． Conversational Implicature 120

7． The Politeness Principle 122

8． Concept of 'Face' 124

CHAPTER 7 LANGUAGE VARIATION 130

WHAT IS LANGUAGE VARIATION? 131

1． Sociolinguistics——Language and Society 131

2． Accents and Dialects 132

3． Sociolects or Social Dialects 137

4． Register and Jargon 141

5． Jargon, Slang and Argot 143

6． Slang,Taboo and Euphemisms 144

7． Language and Culture 146

CHAPTER 8 LANGUAGE CHANGE 153

WHAT IS LANGUAGE CHANGE? 154

1． Language and History 154

2． Internal Causes of Language Change 156

3． External Causes of Language Change 158

4． History of English 161

5． Changes in Pronunciation and Spelling 167

6． Changes in Grammar 168

7． Changes in Vocabulary 169

8． Changes in Meaning 171

APPENDIX 1: KEY TO EXERCISES 178

APPENDIX 2: BIBLIOGRAPHY 187