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1 English-the Working Tongue of the Global Village 1

English is spoken in circles 2

The Inner Circle 3

The Outer Circle 4

The Expanding Circle 5

Do we need a world language? 5

Why English? 6

One or two explanations 8

Part Ⅰ History of an Island Language 13

2 The First 500 Years 13

Roman Britain 14

Ships are sighted with English in embryo on board 17

Christianity in the Isles 19

The Viking age 22

What was Old English like? 27

The Lord's Prayer 27

Beowulf 30

Two translations into Modern English 32

3 1066 and All That 33

Middle English 36

An influx of French words 36

Grammatical endings disappear 39

Geoffrey Chaucer and William Caxton 40

4 Modern English in the Making 46

The Three'Rs'-Renaissance,Reformation,Restoration 47

English and Latin 48

The Elizabethan period 50

Shakespeare's language 54

The King James Bible-a milestone in the history of English 58

Restoration and reaction 60

English gains a new domain-the language of science 63

'Dictionary Johnson' 64

The'End of History'? 65

Codification of the standard language 67

Part Ⅱ The Spread of English around the World 69

5 English Goes to the New World 71

English takes root in America 72

The Pilgrim Fathers 75

The first Americanisms 76

Linguistic variety and uniformity in the United States 78

The American Revolution 82

The frontier moves further west 85

New Americans 89

English goes to Canada 90

Cartier and Canada 91

Loyalists'influence 93

Canadian English 95

6 English Transplanted 98

Australia:the First Fleet 99

Kangaroo,koala,kookaburra become English 101

Australian English 104

New Zealand-Aotearoa 105

New Zealand English 108

English in Africa-the Inner Circle 110

English comes to South Africa 112

English in Africa-the Outer Circle 115

English in South Asia 117

'The jewel in the crown' 117

English in Southeast Asia 119

New Englishes 121

7 English Varieties in the British Isles 124

RP(Received Pronunciation) 125

Cockney 128

Estuary English 130

The North 132

The West Country 133

Vernacular grammar 134

English in Wales 135

English in Scotland 136

Scottish varieties 140

English in Ireland 144

8 American and British English 150

'Divided by a common language'? 152

Americanisms and Americanization 157

Persistent transatlantic differences of vocabulary 159

American and British pronunciation:comparing GA with RP 163

American vs.British grammar 166

AAVE-Black English-Ebonics 169

9 From Caribbean English to Creole 174

Pidgins and creoles 176

Jamaican creole 179

Sranan 181

The life cycle of a creole 183

The Atlantic creoles and their characteristics 185

Tok Pisin 187

Part Ⅲ A Changing Language in Changing Times 191

10 The Standard Language Today 191

Standard English-the written language 193

Vocabulary-combining the North Sea and the Mediterranean 197

A spectrum of usage-from speech to writing 199

Is spoken English grammatical? 203

11 Linguistic Change in Progress:Back to the Inner Circle 206

Grammaticalization 206

Colloquialization 207

Liberalization? 209

Americanization 210

Is English becoming a more democratic language? 211

Is English becoming a non-sexist language? 215

Electronic English 219

12 English into the Future 222

One English or many Englishes? 222

World English 225

The globalization of English 227

English as a lingua franca 232

'Reports of the death of the native speaker have been exaggerated' 235

What is happening in the heartland of English? 237

Changing American voices:Northern Cities Shift 239

The English juggernaut? 241

And where is it all going? 246

Notes:Comments and References 247

References 266

Index of People 274

Index of Topics 276

Pronunciation 286

List of Figures 2

1.1 The three concentric circles of English worldwide 2

1.2 The mushroom of English 8

2.1 Diagram of Germanic and Celtic languages within the Indo-European family 14

2.2 Map of the British Isles 16

2.3 Map of the main Anglo-Saxon kingdoms 20

2.4 Map of the Danelaw and Scandinavian settlement-names,showing the paths of Viking incursions and settlements 26

2.5 Runes 28

2.6 The first page of the sole surviving manuscript of Beowulf 30

3.1 A scene from the Bayeux tapestry 34

3.2 The opening lines of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales,from Caxton's early printed version(1478) 41

3.3 The oldest known representation of a printing press(1507) 44

4.1 The title-page of Shakespeare's First Folio 51

4.2 An early sketch of an Elizabethan theatre 53

5.1 Early expeditions to America by Engl ish speakers,and the thirteen original states(with their present boundaries) 73

5.2 Main accent areas in the United States 81

5.3 Map of the United States 84

5.4 South-eastern Canada 93

6.1 The Endeavour 99

6.2 Map of Australia 101

6.3 Map of New Zealand 107

6.4 Map of South Africa 111

7.1 The pyramid of standardization 127

7.2 Map of England and Wales 131

7.3 An engraving of the four sides of the Ruthwell Cross 137

7.4 Map of Scotland 139

7.5 Robert Burns 142

7.6 Map of Ireland 145

8.1 The spread of English in the world 151

9.1 The Caribbean and Central America 175

9.2 Map of Jamaica 178

9.3 Scene from a Caribbean wedding 179

9.4 Map of Suriname,Guyana and French Guiana 181

10.1 A spectrum of usage linking speech with writing 200

12.1 A model of world English 226

12.2 Dialect areas in the United States with the Northern Cities Shift 240

12.3 Northern Cities Shift 241