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1 Equilibrium Electrochemistry 1

1.1 Chemical Equilibrium 1

1.2 An Introduction to Electrochemical Equilibrium 5

1.3 Electron Transfer at the Solution|Electrode Interface 6

1.4 The Nernst Equation and Electrode|Solution Interfaces 8

1.4.1 One Phase to Another 8

1.5 Reference Electrodes 19

1.6 Standard Electrode Potentials 22

1.7 Formal Potentials 26

References 27

2 Electrode Kinetics 29

2.1 Introduction to Dynamic Electrochemistry 29

2.2 Experimental Arrangement 30

2.3 Electron Transfer and Energy Levels 32

2.4 Electrode Kinetics 33

2.5 The Tafel Law 38

2.6 Introduction to Marcus Theory 40

References 46

3 Cyclic Voltammetry 47

3.1 Introduction 47

3.2 Diffusion 50

3.2.1 The Nernst Diffusion Layer 53

3.3 Migration 54

3.4 Electrode-Solution Interface 55

3.5 Electrode Kinetics 57

3.6 Reaction Mechanisms 68

3.7 pH Effects 77

3.8 Voltammetry at Microelectrodes 78

3.9 Chronoamperometric Experiments:Determining the Electro-catalytic Rate Constant 87

3.10 EC' Mechanism at a Microdisc Electrode 89

3.11 ECE Mechanism at a Microdisc Electrode 90

3.12 Effect of Temperature on Steady-state Currents at a Microdisc 91

3.13 Properties of Microelectrodes 91

3.14 Applications of Microelectrodes 92

3.15 Microelectrode Arrays 94

3.16 Graphitic and Related Electrode Surfaces 103

3.17 Voltammetry at Heterogeneous Surfaces 109

3.18 Thin Layer Effects from Modifying Electrodes 120

References 124

4 Hydrodynamic Techniques 127

4.1 Introduction to Convection 127

4.2 Rotating Disc Systems 128

4.3 Channel and Tubular Electrodes 139

4.4 High Speed Channel Electrode 145

4.5 Hydrodynamic Electrodes Based on Impinging Jets 150

References 154

5 Electroanalysis 156

5.1 Introduction to Electroanalysis 156

5.2 Square Wave Voltammetry 156

5.3 Stripping Voltammetry 158

5.4 Sono-electroanalysis 161

5.5 Screen Printed Sensors 168

5.6 Bismuth Modified Electrodes 182

5.7 Relevant Analytical Parameters 184

References 187

6 Carbon Electrochemistry 189

6.1 Introduction 189

6.2 Carbon Nanotubes 189

6.3 Graphene Electrochemistry 202

6.3.1 Electrochemistry of heterogeneous graphitic surfaces 206

6.3.2 Fundamental electrochemistry of graphene 209

6.3.3 Graphene as a heterogeneous electrode surface 210

6.3.4 Effect of surfactants on the electrochemistry of graphene 218

6.3.5 Metallic impurities on the electrochemistry of graphene 219

6.3.6 Direct electro-catalysis 219

6.3.7 Graphene Oxide(GO) 223

References 227

7 Energy Storage and Generation 230

7.1 Introduction 230

7.2 Super-and Ultra-Capacitors 231

7.3 Testing Super-and Ultra-Capacitors 238

7.4 CycleLife 239

7.5 Graphene Based Supercapacitors 240

7.6 Hybrid Super-or Ultra-Capacitors 245

7.6.1 Noble Metal Oxides 246

7.6.2 Asymmetrical Supercapacitors 249

7.7 Fuel Cells 250

7.7.1 Graphene Based Fuel Cells 255

7.7.2 Microbial Bio-fuel Cells 258

7.7.3 Enzymatic Bio-fuel Cells 260

7.8 Batteries/Li-ion Batteries 260

References 263