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Chapter One Overview of the Study 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Developments in Studies on L1 Writing 3

1.3 Developments in Studies on L2 Writing 4

1.4 Statement of Problems 5

1.5 Method and Purpose of the Study 6

1.6 Structure of the Book 7

Chapter Two Theoretical Orientations to Writing Processes 9

2.1 Introduction 9

2.2 Cognitive Models of the Writing Process 9

2.3 Socio-cognitive Models of the Writing Process 15

2.4 Sociocultural Theory and the Writing Process 20

2.5 Activity Theory and the Writing Process 22

2.6 Chapter Summary 24

Chapter Three Previous Studies on EFL Writing Processes 26

3.1 Introduction 26

3.2 Studies on Planning Processes 26

3.2.1 Nature of Planning Processes 27

3.2.2 Types of Planning Processes 29

3.2.3 Factors Influencing Planning Processes 29

3.2.4 Effects of Planning Processes on Writing Performance 31

3.3 Studies on Generating Processes 34

3.3.1 Language Choices in Generating Processes 34

3.3.2 Focus of Ideas in Generating Processes 36

3.3.3 Role of Proficiency Level in Generating Processes 38

3.3.4 Writing Tools and Generating Processes 39

3.4 Studies on Revising Processes 42

3.4.1 Nature of Revision in Writing Processes 42

3.4.2 Variations in Revising Behaviors 43

3.4.3 Strategies Used in Revising Processes 45

3.5 Chinese Studies on EFL Writing Processes 46

3.6 Research Gaps and Research Objectives 48

3.7 Chapter Summary 49

Chapter Four Methodology of the Study 50

4.1 Introduction 50

4.2 Think-aloud Protocols 50

4.3 Stimulated Recalls 54

4.4 Computer-aided Methods 55

4.4.1 Keystroke Logging 55

4.4.2 Inputlog 56

4.4.3 Automated Essay Scoring 57

4.5 Chapter Summary 59

Chapter Five Planning in the Text-producing Processes 60

5.1 Introduction 60

5.2 Design of the Study 61

5.2.1 Participants 61

5.2.2 Sources of Data 63

5.2.3 Data Collection 63

5.2.4 Data Analysis 65

5.3 Results and Findings 66

5.3.1 Overall Temporal Features of Planning Processes 66

5.3.2 Temporal Features of Planning Processes by Writing Tool 72

5.3.3 Temporal Features of Planning Processes by Group 78

5.4 Discussion 82

5.4.1 Shared Features of Planning Time Allocation 82

5.4.2 Balanced Planning Time of More Proficient Students 84

5.4.3 Decreases in Pre-writing Planning Time 86

5.5 Chapter Summary 87

Chapter Six Generating in the Text-producing Processes 88

6.1 Introduction 88

6.2 Design of the Study 90

6.2.1 Participants 90

6.2.2 Sources of Data 90

6.2.3 Data Collection 91

6.2.4 Data Analysis 93

6.3 Results and Findings 95

6.3.1 Overall Features of Generating Processes 95

6.3.2 Features of Generating Processes by Group 99

6.3.3 Features of Generating Processes by Writing Tool 102

6.4 Discussion 103

6.4.1 Large Time Proportion of Generating Processes 103

6.4.2 Common Use of L1 in L2 Generating Processes 104

6.4.3 Reduction of Generating Time in Keyboard Writing 105

6.5 Chapter Summary 106

Chapter Seven Revising in the Text-producing Processes 107

7.1 Introduction 107

7.2 Design of the Study 109

7.2.1 Participants 109

7.2.2 Sources of Data 109

7.2.3 Data Collection 110

7.2.4 Data Analysis 111

7.3 Results and Discussion 112

7.3.1 Features of Online Revising Processes 112

7.3.2 Types of Online Revisions 116

7.3.3 Focuses of Online Revising Processes 118

7.4 Chapter Summary 119

Chapter Eight Apprehension in the Text-producing Processes 121

8.1 Introduction 121

8.2 Design of the Study 122

8.2.1 Participants 122

8.2.2 Sources of Data 123

8.2.3 Data Collection 125

8.2.4 Data Analysis 128

8.3 Results and Discussion 130

8.3.1 Overall Situation of Writing Apprehension 130

8.3.2 Sources of Writing Apprehension 141

8.3.3 Possible Ways to Reduce Writing Apprehension 145

8.4 Chapter Summary 146

Chapter Nine Reader Awareness in the Text-producing Processes 148

9.1 Introduction 148

9.2 Design of the Study 149

9.2.1 Participants 149

9.2.2 Sources of Data 150

9.2.3 Pilot Study 152

9.2.4 Data Collection 152

9.2.5 Data Analysis 154

9.3 Results and Discussion 156

9.3.1 Perceptions of Audience Awareness in Writing 156

9.3.2 Target Audience in Students'Mind 164

9.3.3 Ways to Realize Audience Awareness 167

9.4 Chapter Summary 178

Chapter Ten Thinking Medium in the Text-producing Processes 179

10.1 Introduction 179

10.2 Design of the Study 180

10.2.1 Participants 180

10.2.2 Sources of Data 181

10.2.3 Data Collection 183

10.2.4 Data Analysis 186

10.3 Results and Discussion 190

10.3.1 Alternate Use of L1 and L2 as Medium of Thought 190

10.3.2 Situations Triggering the Shift of Thinking Medium 196

10.3.3 Task Types and the Use of Thinking Medium 202

10.3.4 Effect Factors to the Choice of Thinking Medium 203

10.3.5 Relationship between L1 Use and Writing Performance 208

10.4 Chapter Summary 209

Chapter Eleven Toward a Mechanism of Text Production in L2 Writing 210

11.1 Introduction 210

11.2 The Role of Proficiency Level 210

11.3 The Role of Thinking Language 212

11.4 The Role of Writing Tools 213

11.5 The Role of Task Type 215

11.6 The Role of Reader Awareness 216

11.7 The Role of Writing Apprehension 217

11.8 A Tentative Model of L2 Text Production 219

11.9 Chapter Summary 222

Chapter Twelve Conclusion 223

12.1 Summary of the Study 223

12.2 Pedagogical Implications 225

12.2.1 Teaching Writing beyond Language Points 225

12.2.2 Teaching Writing with the Aid of Technology 226

12.2.3 Combining Reading and Writing in Writing Instruction 227

12.2.4 Providing Adequate Opportunities for Practice 227

12.3 Limitations of the Study 227

12.4 Suggestions for Future Studies 228

12.5 Concluding Remarks 229

References 230

Appendix 1 261

Appendix 2 262

Appendix 3 263

Appendix 4 264

Appendix 5 265

Appendix 6 266

Appendix 7 269

Appendix 8 270

Appendix 9 271

Appendix 10 272

Acknowledgements 274