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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the study 2

1.2 Statement of the problem 8

1.3 Purpose of the study 12

1.4 Significance of the study 14

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 17

2.1 Spoken language learning 17

2.2 Major factors that affect spoken language learning 19

2.3 Effectiveness of spoken language learning 25

2.4 Learning behavior and its effect on academic achievement 30

2.5 Language learning in MUVEs 33

2.6 Current developments in language learning with technology 38

Chapter 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 47

3.1 Second language acquisition 47

3.2 Language learning in MUVEs 51

3.3 Educational affordances of MUVEs 58

Chapter 4 METHODOLGY 67

4.1 Design 67

4.2 Instrumentation 79

4.3 Data collection 87

Chapter 5 RESEARCH FINDINGS 91

5.1 The current state of spoken English learning in the physical world 91

5.2 Learning characteristics of the less proficient students 99

5.3 Learning characteristics of the more proficient students 116

5.4 Characteristics of spoken English learning in MUVEs 132

Chapter 6 DISCUSSION 159

6.1 Spoken English learning in traditional learning contexts 159

6.2 Pedagogical affordances of MUVEs for spoken English learning 175

6.3 Behavioral characteristics of spoken English learners in MUVEs 182

6.4 The conceptual framework of spoken English learning in MUVEs 185

6.5 A pedagogical model of spoken English learning in MUVEs 189

6.6 Pedagogical challenges of spoken English learning in MUVEs 214

Chapter 7 CONCLUSIONS 225

7.1 Summary of major findings 226

7.2 Pedagogical implications 228

7.3 Limitations of this study 233

7.4 Suggestions for further research 233

Appendix A A Questionnaire on Routine Spoken English Learning 235

Appendix B An Interview Protocol for Identifying Routine Spoken English Learning Behaviors 243

Appendix C An Interview Protocol for Identifying Spoken English Learning Behaviors in Second Life 245

Appendix D Observation Protocol 249

Appendix E Some Sample Oral Tasks 251

References 262

Acknowledgments 299

Figure 1 Units of spoken language,originated from Bailey （2005） 18

Figure 2 Percentage of the learners for improving the four language skills 92

Figure 3 Attitude toward class time for spoken English learning 94

Figure 4 Motivation for improving spoken English 94

Figure 5 The optimal number of group members 95

Figure 6 The most favorite topics for discussion activities 96

Figure 7 The perceived most effective learning method 97

Figure 8 Frequency of practicing spoken English on a daily basis 98

Figure 9 Available opportunities for practicing English with native speakers 98

Figure 10 The top five factors that affect spoken English learning 99

Figure 11 A model of the less proficient students'spoken English learning 115

Figure 12 A snapshot of a learning site in the Kwansei sim 132

Figure 13 A snapshot of Voice-aholics Headquarters 136

Figure 14 A snapshot of a discussion activity at the IBM conference center 151

Figure 15 A snapshot of the immersive learning context at the Great Wall 153

Figure 16 A conceptual framework of effective spoken English learning in traditional learning environments 161

Figure 17 A model of effective spoken English learning 170

Figure 18 The conceptual framework of spoken English learning in MUVEs 186

Figure 19 A pedagogical model of scaffolded blended spoken English learning 192

Figure 20 A snapshot of the Second Life interface 199