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1 Reading Devices 1

1.1 Text-to-Speech Conversion:A Brief Introduction 2

1.2 The Task of Pronouncing Aloud:A Model 6

1.2.1 A Simple Example from Russian 6

1.2.2 Formal Definitions 11

1.2.2.1 AVMs and Annotation Graphs 11

1.2.2.2 Definitions 13

1.2.2.3 Axioms 14

1.2.3 Central Claims of the Theory 15

1.2.3.1 Regularity 16

1.2.3.2 Consistency 19

1.2.4 Further Issues 20

1.2.4.1 Why a Constrained Theory of Writing Systems? 21

1.2.4.2 Orthography and the"Segmental"Assumption 23

1.3 Terminology and Conventions 25

1.A Appendix:An Overview of Finite-State Automata and Transducers 29

1.A.1 Regular Languages and Finite-State Automata 29

1.A.2 Regular Relations and Finite-State Transducers 30

2 Regularity 34

2.1 Planar Regular Languages and Planar Regular Relations 35

2.2 The Locality Hypothesis 41

2.3 Planar Arrangements:Examples 42

2.3.1 Korean Hankul 43

2.3.2 Devanagari 45

2.3.3 Pahawh Hmong 47

2.3.4 Chinese 48

2.3.5 A Counterexample from Ancient Egyptian 54

2.4 Cross-Writing-System Variation in the SLU 55

2.5 Macroscopic Catenation:Text Direction 59

2.A Sample Chinese Characters and Their Analyses 62

3 ORL Depth and Consistency 67

3.1 Russian and Belarusian Orthography:A Case Study 67

3.1.1 Vowel Reduction 68

3.1.2 Regressive Palatalization 73

3.1.3 Lexical Marking in Russian and Other Issues 76

3.1.4 Summary of Russian and Belarusian 79

3.2 English 79

3.3 The Orthographic Representation of Serbo-Croatian Consonant Devoicing 89

3.3.1 Methods and Materials 91

3.3.2 Results 92

3.4 Cyclicity in Orthography 95

3.5 Surface Orthographic Constraints 96

3.A English Deep and Shallow ORLs 99

3.A.1 Lexical Representations 99

3.A.2 Rules for the Deep ORL 127

3.A.3 Rules for the Shallow ORL 129

4 Linguistic Elements 131

4.1 Taxonomies of Writing Systems:A Brief Overview 132

4.1.1 Gelb 132

4.1.2 Sampson 133

4.1.3 DeFrancis 134

4.1.3.1 No Full Writing System Is Semasiographic 134

4.1.3.2 All Full Writing Is Phonographic 135

4.1.3.3 Hankul Is Not Featural 135

4.1.4 A New Proposal 139

4.1.5 Summary 143

4.2 Chinese Writing 144

4.3 Japanese Writing 154

4.4 Some Further Examples 160

4.4.1 Syriac Syame 160

4.4.2 Reduplication Markers 161

4.4.3 Cancellation Signs 162

5 Psycholinguistic Evidence 163

5.1 Multiple Routes and the Orthographic Depth Hypothesis 165

5.1.1 Evidence for the Orthographic Depth Hypothesis 168

5.1.2 Evidence against the Orthographic Depth Hypothesis 170

5.2 "Shallow"Processing in"Deep"Orthographies 171

5.2.1 Phonological Access in Chinese 171

5.2.2 Phonological Access in Japanese 173

5.2.3 Evidence for the Function of Phonetic Components in Chinese 175

5.2.4 Summary 176

5.3 Connectionist Models:The Seidenberg-McClelland Model 178

5.3.1 Outline of the Model 179

5.3.2 What Is Wrong with the Model? 181

5.4 Summary 184

6 Further Issues 185

6.1 Adaptation of Writing Systems:The Case of Manx Gaelic 185

6.2 Orthographic Reforms:The Case of Dutch 192

6.2.1 The 1954 Spelling Rules 193

6.2.2 The 1995 Spelling Rules 195

6.3 Other Forms of Notation:Numerical Notation and Its Relation to Number Names 197

6.4 Abbreviatory Devices 204

6.5 Non-Bloomfieldian Views on Writing 209

6.6 Postscript 212

Bibliography 217

Index 227