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1 The early years 3

PART ONE Practical language teaching to 1800 3

2 'Refugiate in a strange country':the refugee language teachers in Elizabethan London 12

1 Title-page ofJacques Bellot's English Schoolmaster(1580). 15

2 Extract from Jacques Bellot's Familiar Dialogues(1586). 17

3 Extract from Claudius Holyband's French Littleton(1609 edition) 23

3 Towards'The great and common world' 32

4 Extract from Joseph Webbe's Children's Talk (1627). 36

5 5 Title-page of Comenius's Orbis Pictus (1659). 47

7 Extract from Orbis Pictus(1659). 48

6 Extract from Orbis Pictus(1659). 48

4 Guy Miège and the second Huguenot exile 52

8 Extract from Guy Miège's English Grammar(1688). 56

9 Extract from Guy Miège's Nouvelle Méthode pour appren-dre l'Anglois(1685). 58

5 The spread of English language teaching in Europe 61

10 Map:The spread of English as a foreign language in Europe to 1800. 62

11 Selected late-seventeenth and eighteenth century works for the teaching of English as a foreign language. 63

12 Title-page of John Miller's The Tutor(1797). 69

13 Extract from John Miller's The Tutor(1797). 70

14 Extract from John Miller's The Tutor ( 1797). 71

6 Introduction 75

PART TWO On'fixing'the language 75

The work of John Hart,Chester Herald 83

7 Two proposals for orthographical reform in the sixteenth century: 83

15 First step in John Hart's Method(1570). 87

16 Second step in John Hart's Method(1570). 88

Richard Mulcaster's Elementarie 89

Ben Jonson's English Grammar 94

8 Early pedagogical grammars of English for foreign learners: 94

John Wallis's Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae 98

9 'Things,words,and notions' 102

17 Summary of John Wilkins'Essay(1668). 103

Latin Schools and English Schools 106

10 The language'fixed': 106

Swift's Proposal for a British Academy 109

Towards Standard English 110

18 Extracts from Johnson's Dictionary of the English Lan-guage(1755)including the famous oats definition,and Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language(from the 1832 London reprint). 113

19 Extract from Lowth's Short Introduction to English Grammar(1762). 118

20 Extract from Lowth's Short Introduction to English Grammar(1762). 119

Overview 129

PART THREE Language teaching in the nineteenth century 129

Introduction 131

11 The grammar-translation method: 131

The grammar-translation method and the schools:some Anglo-German contrasts 132

The grammar-translation method and adult language teaching:the'practical approach'of Ahn and Ollendorff 138

21 Lesson 50 of Ollendorff's German course for English speakers(2nd edition 1841). 142

12 Individual reformers: 147

Overview 147

'All is in all':Jean Joseph Jacotot 150

The Rational Method of Claude Marcel 152

Thomas Prendergast's'Mastery System' 156

22 'The Labyrinth'from Thomas Prendergast's Mastery of Languages(1864). 160

Fran？ois Gouin and the'Series' 161

Introduction 169

13 The Reform Movement: 169

The principles of reform 171

The Klinghardt experiment 173

The role of phonetics 175

The work of Henry Sweet:an applied linguistic approach 179

23 Henry Sweet(1845-1912). 180

14 Natural methods of language teaching from Montaigne to Berlitz 192

24 Maximilian D.Berlitz(1852-1921). 203

15 The teaching of English as a foreign or second language since 1 900:a survey: 212

PART FOUR The making of a profession 212

SECTION 1 Overview of English language teaching since 1900 212

Laying the foundations(1900-1922) 213

Research and development(1922-1939) 214

Consolidation(1 945-1 960) 217

Change and variation since 1960 220

SECTION 2 Essays in the history of English language teaching since 1900 230

16 Harold E.Palmer: 230

Palmer's life and work 230

25 Harold E.Palmer (1877-1949). 231

Palmer's methodology 236

Michael West and the New Method 245

17 Choosing the right words: 245

26 West's lexical distribution patterns. 248

The Basic issue 250

Carnegie and after 255

A.S.Hornby and the post-war consensus 260

18 Old patterns and new directions: 260

27 A.S.Hornby (1898-1978). 261

The impact of applied linguistics 265

The notion of communication 273

Epilogue:On rational and natural approaches to language teaching 295

A chronology of English language teaching 298

Biographical notes 305

Appendix: 340

28 Title-page of Wilhelm Vi？tor's Der Sprachunterricht muss umkehren! 343

'Language teaching must start afresh!'A translation of Wilhelm Vi？tor's DerSprachunterricht muss umkehren! 343

Bibliography 364

Index 385