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INTRODUCTION - THE FAILURE AND THE PROMISE OF THE MULTILATERAL TRADING REGIME 1

Ⅰ The ‘Science of Development’ and ‘Capitalist Imperialism’ 4

Ⅱ Development as a ‘Discourse’ and Development as a ‘Trap’ 7

Ⅲ Outline of the Chapters 10

1 THE BRETTON WOODS CONFERENCE： TRADE AND THE CIVILISING MISSION’ IN THE POSTWAR INTERNATIONAL TRADING REGIME 14

Ⅰ The Mandate System and ‘the Science of Development’ 16

A Freedom of Transit and Equitable Treatment： The First Regulatory Attempt at a World Trade Order… 20

B …and the Extension of Market Imperatives 22

Ⅱ The Bretton Woods Conference and the Postwar International Economic Order 23

A Grounding ‘Non-Discrimination’ and ‘Equal Treatment’ in Trade Relations 26

B The Draft Charter and the London Conference： Of Rules and Exceptions 29

C The Free-Trade Contradictions of the Charter： Structuring the International Division of Labour 31

D The Investment Provisions： Protecting Capital Abroad 34

E The Outcome of the ITO Negotiations 36

Ⅲ The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade （GATT） 37

Conclusions 38

2 THE ‘SCIENCE OF DEVELOPMENT’ AND THE GATT NORM 41

Ⅰ The Emergence of the Development Enterprise 43

A The ‘Professionalisation’ and ‘Institutionalisation’ of Development 45

B Development Economics’ ‘Growth’ and ‘Progress’ 46

C Development Economics’ Normative Assumptions 48

D Reformist Dependency Theories and the Development Matrix： The Structuralist School of Thought 51

Ⅱ The GATT Development Mission 55

A The GATT First Review Session： Positing Developing Countries’ Failure 57

B The Haberler Report and Committee Ⅲ： Tracing Discrimination 58

C The GATT Part Ⅳ： Discharging Responsibility 60

D Enabling Non-Reciprocity 62

E A ‘Differential and More Favourable Treatment’？ 64

F Assessing the GATT’s Flexibility 66

Conclusions 68

3 THE NEO-LIBERAL TRANSFORMATION OF DEVELOPMENT THINKING AND THE RENEWED MISSION OF THE MULTILATERAL TRADING REGIME 70

Ⅰ The Neo-Liberal Conversion of Development Thinking 71

A Rational Choice-Based Approach… 74

B …and Failing Institutional Arrangements 76

C Outward-Oriented Policies and Government Controls 77

Ⅱ The Neo-Liberal Transformation of the International Trading Regime 80

A The World Recession and the Restructuring of the International Economy 82

B Towards a Trade-Service-Investment Driven Market Integration： Enter the ‘New Issues’ 85

C Setting the Scene for the New Mandate 88

D Punta del Este： A Divisive Strategy 90

Ⅲ Developing Countries’ Re-Alignment： Revisiting the Story 93

A From the Oil and Debt Crisis to the Structural Adjustment Policies 94

B The Challenge of Increasing Discrimination 97

C The Pressure Tactic： Unilateralism/Bilateralism/Multilateralism 98

Conclusions 100

4 THE URUGUAY ROUND AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE NEW CONSENSUS 103

Ⅰ Old and New Issues on the Negotiating Table， Corporate Activism and the Single Undertaking Approach 105

Ⅱ The Rise of US Protectionism and the Consolidation of the Pressure Tactic 108

Ⅲ The Montreal/Geneva Mid-Term Review： Weakening the Opposition to a Broader Mandate 112

Ⅳ Brussels Ministerial Meeting： Reintroducing Reciprocity 115

Ⅴ From Brussels to Marrakesh： Clinton’s Aggressive Approach to Market Openness 119

Ⅵ The Final Agreement： Towards an Equal Playing Field？ 121

A The New Issues… 121

B …and the Same Old Ones 125

Conclusions 128

5 THE WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION： THE POWER OF TRANSNATIONAL CAPITAL AND THE REDUCTION OF DOMESTIC REGULATORY SPACE 130

Ⅰ Assessing the ‘Trade Off’： the Market Access Issues 132

A Agriculture 133

B Textiles and Clothing 134

C Safeguards and Anti-Dumping 135

D Implementation Costs 136

Ⅱ Liberalisation Rhetoric and Practice： Opening Markets， Protecting Capital 138

A Investors’ Rights in Historical Context 139

B The Changing Investment Climate of the 1980s and 1990s： Securing Protection Abroad 142

C The ‘Modest’ TRIMs Agreement 145

D The ‘Flexible’ General Agreement on Trade in Services （GATS） 149

E The ‘Balanced’ TRIPs Agreement 157

Conclusions 163

6 OF FAILURES AND PROMISES： THE MANY LIVES OF THE DOHA DEVELOPMENT ROUND 164

Ⅰ The Road to Doha： Reflecting on the UR Imbalances 165

Ⅱ The Doha Agenda 168

A Principles and Objectives： Multilateralism， Free Trade， Development 168

B Work Programme： Towards a Softening of the WTO Neo-Liberal Agenda？ 170

Ⅲ From Cancun to Geneva： Emerging Oppositions 176

Ⅳ Reaction to Cancun： Silencing Dissent 180

Ⅴ GATS ‘Flexibility’： Rhetoric and Negotiating Practice 182

A The Safeguard Mechanism and Liberalisation of GATS Mode 4： An Uncertain Future 183

B Targeting Non-Discriminatory Domestic Regulation： GATS Article Ⅵ 185

C Enter Specific Commitments： The Request-Offer Approach 186

Ⅵ TRIPs： Transfer of Technology v Investors’ Rights 189

A Substantive TRIPs-plus Standards in Investment Agreements 192

B Investor-to-State Dispute Resolution 193

C Expropriation 194

Ⅶ From Hong Kong to Geneva： The Last Breath of the Doha Round？ 197

A The July Framework 198

B The Hong Kong Ministerial Declaration 199

C Suspension， Crisis， Resumption 201

Conclusions 202

CONCLUSIONS - THE DEVELOPMENT MISSION OF THE WTO 205

Ⅰ The First Perspective： The Reform of the International Trading System 207

A The GATS and the Financial Crisis 210

B Addressing the Challenge， Strengthening the Mindset 213

Ⅱ The Second Perspective： The WTO and its Civilising Mission 217

Ⅲ The WTO’s Market-Access Mindset 220

Ⅳ The ‘Political Rationality’ of Development 224

Bibliography 228

Index 243