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1 Introduction 1

1.1 The Subject of the Study 1

1.2 Background of the Study 6

1.3 Terminology 9

1.3.1 The Defense of Superior Orders 9

1.3.2 Defense 9

1.3.3 Views on the Superior Orders Defense 11

1.3.4 International Criminal Law 13

1.4 Structure of the Study 14

2 Before the Adoption of the Nuremberg Charter 15

2.1 National Laws of the Drafting Countries of the Nuremberg Charter 15

2.1.1 The Defense of Superior Orders in the United Kingdom 15

2.1.2 Superior Orders Defense in the United States 23

2.1.3 Superior Orders Defense in France 30

2.1.4 Superior Orders Defense in the Soviet Union 34

2.1.5 Conclusion 36

2.2 Situation of International Law 38

2.2.1 Proposals of Treaties and Superior Orders Defense 39

2.2.2 The Versailles Treaty and the Reipzig Trials 42

2.2.3 Conclusion 47

3 Formation of the ‘Nuremberg Principle’ 49

3.1 Preparatory Work of the Nuremberg Charter 49

3.1.1 The United Nations War Crimes Commission 50

3.1.2 Preparatory Work of the Nuremberg Charter 52

3.2 The Nuremberg Trial 58

3.2.1 The Argument of the Prosecution 59

3.2.2 The Argument of the Defendants 62

3.2.3 The Judgment 66

3.2.4 Conclusion 71

3.3 The Subsequent Proceedings 71

3.3.1 The Argument of the Prosecution 73

3.3.2 The Argument of the Defense Counsels 75

3.3.3 The Judgment 79

3.3.4 Conclusion 87

3.4 The Tokyo Trial 89

3.4.1 The Argument of the Defense Counsels and the Prosecution 91

3.4.2 The Judgment 94

3.4.3 Conclusion 95

3.5 The ‘Nuremberg Principle’ and the Theory of Superior Orders Defense 95

3.5.1 Theoretical Ambiguity of the ‘Nuremberg Principle’ 95

3.5.2 Theories of Superior Orders Defense 96

3.5.3 The Meaning of the ‘Nuremberg Principle’ 101

4 After the Trials Under the Nuremberg Charter 103

4.1 International Rule-Making 103

4.1.1 Preparatory Work of Treaties and Superior Orders Defense 104

4.1.2 Codification Process at the ILC 109

4.1.3 Statutes of the International Criminal Tribunals 117

4.1.4 Conclusion 125

4.2 Judicial Precedents 127

4.2.1 National Cases 128

4.2.2 The Erdemovic Judgment of ICTY Appeals Chamber 133

4.3 Academic Arguments 141

5 Change of the Structure of International Legal Order and ‘Hesitation’ 147

5.1 The ‘Nuremberg Principle’ and the Present 147

5.2 The ‘Nuremberg Principle’ - Denial of Automatic Immunity -and International Legal Order 149

5.3 Remaining Problems 150

Select Bibliography 157

Monographs (Including Microfilm) 157

Articles 162

Index 173