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PART Ⅰ INTRODUCTION AND BASIC DEFINITIONS 1

1 Preliminary Considerations 3

Documents and Questioned Documents 3

Examiner of Questioned Documents 4

Standards 6

Reference Collections 6

Instruments 7

Scientific Examination of Documents 8

Probability of Accidental Coincidence 9

Nonidentity of Source 10

Natural Variation 10

The Opinion 11

Basis of Effective Court Presentation 11

Indefinite Findings 12

Scope of Document Problems 12

2 Definitions of Terms 14

General Terms 15

Handwriting 18

Typewriting 22

Altered Documents 24

Other Identification Problems 25

Photographs and Other Reproductions 27

PART Ⅱ WHAT EXAMINATION OF A DOCUMENT MAY REVEAL 31

3 Instruments and Materials Used to Prepare Documents 33

The Pen 33

Writing Inks 39

Pencils 42

Crayons and Marking Pencils 46

The Typewriter 46

Computer Printouts 57

Carbon Copies 58

Typewriter Ribbons 61

Correction Liquid and Paper 65

Adding Machines, Calculators, and Cash Registers 66

Mechanical Recording Devices 68

Check Writers 69

Hand and Impression Stamps 71

Mimeograph and Office Duplicating Methods 76

Address Stencils and Plates 78

Printed Matter 79

Paper Examination 82

Carbon Paper 88

Seals and Authenticating Devices 90

Adhesive Stamps 91

Grouping and Binding Devices 91

Conclusions 94

4 Alterations in Documents 95

Erasures 96

Associated Evidence 106

Cutting 106

Interlineations and Additions 108

Obliterated or Smeared-over Writing 117

Altered Photocopies 122

Proof of an Unaltered Document 122

Conclusions 124

5 Damaged Documents 125

Damage and Obliteration by Water 125

Light-Faded Inks 126

Stained Documents 130

Torn Documents 131

Charred Documents 132

Conclusions 134

6 Accidental Markings and Impressions on a Document 135

Latent Fingerprints 135

Writing Offsets 138

Impressed Writing 138

Foreign Traces 141

Conclusions 142

7 Additional Clues for the Investigator 143

Indicative Information 143

Illegible Handwriting 146

Blank Papers 146

Secret Inks 148

Ballot Frauds 148

Conclusions 149

PART Ⅲ DISCOVERY OF FACTS BY COMPARISON WITH KNOWN MATERIAL 151

8 Identification of Handwriting 153

Writing Forms and Qualities 154

Arrangement of Writing 158

Writing Variation 158

Class and Individual Characteristics 160

Identification in a Practical Situation 160

Nonidentity of Writings 161

Typical Problems Involving Writing Identification 162

Holographic Wills 165

Inhibiting Factors 168

Disguise 168

Conclusions 171

9 Identification of Signatures and Detection of Forgery 172

Genuine Signatures 173

Unusual Genuine Signatures 176

Detection of Forgery 182

Forgery of Holographic Documents 192

Identifying the Forger 199

Assisted or Guided Signatures 202

Identification of Initials and Illiterates' Marks 204

Conclusions 207

10 Identification of Handlettering and Numerals 210

Handlettering 210

Numerals 217

Conclusions 223

11 Typewriting Identification 224

Printing Defects 226

Machine Defects 228

Variation 229

Transitory Defects 231

Basis of Identification 233

Typebar Machine 233

Proportional Spacing Typewriting 235

Single Element Type Ball Machines 237

Proportional Spacing Single Element Machines 243

The Electronic Typewriter 246

Identification Problems 248

Identification of the Typist 250

Identification by Typewriter Ribbon 252

Forgery of a Typewriter 255

Disguised Typewriting 258

12 Other Mechanical Impressions, Including Check Writers and Printing Identifications 260

Check Writers and Check-Writing Units 260

Adding-Machine Tapes and Cash-Register Receipts 262

Other Recording Machines 264

Computer Printouts 266

Time Clocks and Date Stamps 266

Printed Matter 268

13 Age of a Document 273

Dating by Materials 274

Dating by Changes in Materials 280

Dating by Comparison 282

Dating by Chance Marks 291

Combination of Factors 294

Conclusions 295

PART Ⅳ THE ATTORNEY-INVESTIGATOR'S ROLE IN A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT PROBLEM 297

14 Preparation and Collection of Handwriting Standards 299

Collected Standards 299

Sources of Standards 308

Request Standards 310

Special Considerations for Request Signatures 320

Combination of Request and Collected Standards 321

Standards for Special Problems 322

Standards Prepared Under Cross-examination 327

Handlettered Standards 328

Conclusions 329

15 Typewriting Standards 331

Standards for Machine Identification 331

Single Element Standards 343

Standards to Identify the Operator 346

Conclusions 348

16 Care,Handling,and Preservation of Documents 349

Protcctive Enveelopes 350

Earlv Submission for Examination 350

Proper Storage 351

Avoid Excessive Handling 352

Do Not Mark 353

Do Not Fold,Cut,or Tear 355

Do Not Allow "Amateur" Testing 357

Charred Documents 359

Conclusions 360

17 Reproduction of Documents 361

Photographs 362

Today's Dry-Photocopying Systems 369

Earlier Reproduction Methods 373

Other Methods 379

Analysis of Photocopies 384

Fraudulent Photocopies 385

PART Ⅴ THE DOCUMENT PROBLEM GOES TO COURT 389

18 Preparation for Trial 391

The Document Examiner's Preparation 391

Special Reports and Conferences 399

19 In the Court Room 403

Proofof Standards 403

The Document Examiner's Testimony 404

Purpose of the Doc ument Examiner in Court 413

Document Examiners as Opposing Witnesses 413

Use of More than One Expert Witness 414

Affidavits and Depositions by Document Examiners 415

Conclusions 416

Index 417