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PART Ⅰ:PRELIMINARY MATTERS 3

Ⅰ.INTRODUCTION 3

(1) General Principles limiting the Competence of States in Matters of Nationality 4

(a) The Imposition of Nationality upon Immigrants or Residents 6

(b) 'Denationalization' 7

(c) Nationality and Diplomatic Protection 8

(2) Nationality and Rights of Entry in Municipal Law 11

(a) British Nationality and Citizenship of the United Kingdom and Colonies 11

(b) French Nationality 14

(c) Nationality of the Federal Republic of Germany 16

(d) Conclusions 20

(3) State Powers in Relation to the Entry and Expulsion of Foreign Nationals 21

(a) Bilateral Obligations 21

(b) Obligations having a Regional or Multilateral Basis 22

(c) Universal Obligations,or Obligations owed erga omnes 22

Ⅱ.INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE PASSPORT REGIME 24

(1) Possession of a Passport as a Condition of Admission 25

(2) Passports and the 'Right to Travel' 29

(3) Liberalization of inter-State Travel:Alternative Travel Documents 39

(a) Travel and Identity Documents for Refugees and Stateless Persons 42

(4) The International Law of Passports 44

(a) Passports and 'Returnability' 44

(b) The Passport as Evidence of Nationality 46

(c) Conclusions 49

Ⅲ.THE RELATION OF MATTERS OF IMMIGRATION TO THE RESERVED DOMAIN OF DOMESTIC JURISDICTION 51

Ⅳ.THE IMPRESSION OF HUMAN RIGHTS STANDARDS ON THE TREATMENT OF FOREIGN NATIONALS 58

(1) International Minimum Standard or National Treatment 58

(2) Proposals for a 'Standard of Humanity' 63

(3) The 1966 Conventions 66

(4) Human Rights Standards and General International Law 71

Ⅴ.THE PRINCIPLE OF NON-DISCRIMINATION AND ITS APPLICATION TO FOREIGN NATIONALS 75

(1) The Meaning of Discrimination 75

(a) Non-Discrimination in the Jurisprudence of International Tribunals 76

(b) Non-Discrimination as required by the European Convention on Human Rights 79

(2) Discrimination on the Basis of Nationality 83

PART Ⅱ:THE ENTRY AND EXCLUSION OF FOREIGN NATIONALS 91

Introduction 91

Ⅵ.ENTRY AND EXCLUSION UNDER THE LAW OF THE UNITED KINGDOM 97

(1) History of Control over Aliens and Commonwealth Citizens 97

(2) The Immigration Act 1971 103

(a) Pre-entry Procedures 106

(b) Procedure on Arrival 108

(c) General Grounds for Exclusion 116

(d) Rights of Appeal 118

Ⅶ.ENTRY AND EXCLUSION UNDER THE LAW OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 123

(1) The Immigration and Nationality Act 1952,as amended 124

(a) Pre-entry Procedures 128

(Ⅰ) Immigrants 128

(Ⅱ) Non-immigrants 129

(b) Procedure on Arrival 130

(c) Rights of Appeal 132

(d) Conclusions 134

Ⅷ.OBLIGATIONS TO GRANT ADMISSION IMPOSED BY GENERAL INTERNATIONAL LAW 136

(1) Nationals 136

(2) Refugees and Asylum 137

(a) 'Asylum' and 'political offence' 142

Ⅸ.OBLIGATIONS TO GRANT ADMISSION TO CERTAIN OTHER EXCEPTIONAL CATEGORIES 147

(1) Diplomats and Consuls 147

(2) Special Missions 151

(3) International Officials 152

(4) Crewmembers 156

Ⅹ.OBLIGATIONS TO GRANT ADMISSION ARISING FROM TREATY 160

(1) The European Convention on Human Rights 161

(2) The European Convention on Establishment 1955 and the Treaty of Rome 1957 168

(a) 'Nationals' of Member States 173

(b) Rights incidental to free movement 176

(c) Freedom of Establishment 179

(d) Secondary Community Legislation 181

(3) Bilateral Treaties of Establishment 186

(4) Conclusions 195

PART Ⅲ:EXPULSION 201

Introduction 201

The Traditional View of the Power of Expulsion 203

Ⅺ.THE FUNCTION OF EXPULSION IN GENERAL INTERNATIONAL LAW 206

(1) Introduction 206

(a) First examples 206

(b) First propositions 208

(2) Expulsion and the Doctrine of Abuse of Rights 209

(a) The Doctrine before International Tribunals 210

(b) The Uganda Expulsions 1972 212

(c) 'Confiscatory expulsion' 216

(d) Expulsion for other ulterior motives 217

(3) Expulsion to a Particular State as the Breach of an International Obligation 218

(a) 'Locus standi' under the European Convention on Human Rights 221

(b) The Practice of 'Disguised Extradition' 223

(c) Municipal Law Controls 224

(d) The Soblen Case 226

(4) Conclusions Relating to the Function of Expulsion 228

Ⅻ.THE JUSTIFICATION FOR EXPULSION 229

(1) The Concept of 'ordre public' 229

(a) The Requirement of 'reasonable cause' 231

(b) The South African Expulsions 1900 233

(2) Grounds for Expulsion in Municipal Law 236

(a) United States Practice 237

(b) United Kingdom Practice 243

(c) Other Regimes 251

(d) Grounds for Expulsion summarized 255

(3) Expulsion and Respect for 'Acquired Rights' 255

(a) The Meaning of 'Acquired Rights' 256

(b) A Vested Right of Residence? 259

(4) Conclusions Relating to the Justification for Expulsion 262

ⅩⅢ.THE MANNER AND FORM OF EXPULSION 263

(1) The Right to a Hearing 263

(a) Judicial Review 265

(2) Rights of Appeal in Municipal Law 266

(a) United States Practice 266

(b) United Kingdom Practice 269

(c) A Hearing as an International Obligation 274

(3) Personal Treatment of the Alien:Decisions of Tribunals 275

(4) Compensation for Expulsion 278

(5) Conclusions Relating to the Manner and Form of Expulsion 280

ⅩⅣ.THE IMPRESSION OF TREATY OBLIGATIONS UPON THE GENERAL POWER OF EXPULSION 282

(1) Introduction 282

(2) Expulsion and the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 284

(a) The Fourth Protocol 286

(b) The Example of Emergency Measures taken under Article 15 290

(c) Procedural Guarantees for Aliens 291

(d) Conclusions regarding the European Convention 291

(3) Expulsion and Treaties of Establishment 292

(a) Reserved Powers in Treaties of Establishment 293

(b) 'Ordre public' reconsidered 295

(c) 'Ordre public' and the Guardianship of Infants Case 295

(d) 'Ordre public' in the Jurisprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany 298

(4) Expulsion and the European Economic Community 299

(a) The Scope of Reserved Powers under the Treaty of Rome 300

(b) The Decision in Reyners v.Belgian State 302

(c) The Decision in Van Duyn v.Home Office 302

(d) Conclusions regarding the E.E.C.regime 304

ⅩⅤ.A SUMMARY OF THE LIMITS ON THE POWER OF EXPULSION IN GENERAL INTERNATIONAL LAW 307

Select Bibliography 311

Index 319