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1 introduction to research 1

nature of criminal justice research 1

what is research? 2

research processes 3

pure versus applied research 5

scientific inquiry 8

assessing goodness of theory 9

Empiricism 9

Objectivity 10

Skepticism and Replication 10

Falsifiability 10

Dynamic Nature of Theory 10

Ethics 11

constructing scientific theories 11

research hypotheses 12

Becoming Acquainted with Hypotheses 15

Null Hypothesis 16

Concepts and Variables 16

summary 19

terminology 19

discussion points 20

endnotes 20

2 research design 23

what is research design? 23

types of research designs 24

Quantitative Research 25

Qualitative Research 25

Evaluative Research 26

research purposes 27

Exploratory Research 27

Descriptive Research 28

Explanatory Research 29

choice of research design 29

Experimental Method 30

Quasi-Experimental Method 31

Survey Method 32

Case Study 33

levels of measurement 34

Nominal Variables 35

Ordinal Variables 35

Interval Variables 36

Ratio Variables 36

validity and reliability 37

summary 38

terminology 40

discussion points 41

endnotes 41

3 statistics in research 43

introduction 43

role of statistics 43

basic principles and conventions 45

Common Terms 45

Terms for measures of central tendency 47

Terms for measures of dispersion 47

Terms for frequency distributions 48

Conventions Used in Statistics 48

descriptive statistics 48

Measures of Central Tendency 49

Mode 49

Median 50

Mean 50

Measures of Dispersion 51

Proportion 51

Percentage 51

Variation ratio 52

Index of qualitative variation 52

Range 53

Variance 53

Standard deviation 55

Mean deviation 55

data grouping 55

Ranked Distribution 55

Frequency Distribution 56

Cumulative Frequency 57

Graphing Techniques 57

Histogram and bar graph 57

Pie chart 57

Scatter plot 59

Frequency polygon 59

Frequency curve 60

Normal curve 60

Correlation coefficient 63

inferential statistics 63

Probability Theory 63

Multiplication Rule 65

Logic of Statistical Inference Testing 66

Statistical Significance 67

Determining Statistical Significance 68

Chi-square test 68

t-test 69

Using normal curve 70

Runs test 70

Mann-Whitney U test 70

z-scores 71

ANOVA 71

summary 71

terminology 72

discussion points 74

endnotes 74

4 measures, validity, and reliability 77

introduction 77

measurement 77

variables 79

indexes and scales 80

Indexes 80

Scales 80

Attitude scales 82

Scale construction 84

validity and reliability 85

Validity 85

Triangulation 86

Reliability 87

summary 87

terminology 88

discussion points 88

endnotes 89

5 analytical and experimental research 91

analytical research 91

Role of Statistics in Analytical Research 93

Developing Analytical Research Projects 94

Hypothesis Testing 95

Common Errors 95

experimental research 96

Estimation 96

Experiment 96

Variables 97

Validity Problems 97

Experimental Research Categories 98

Pre-experimental design 98

True experimental design 99

Quasi-experimental design 100

Ex post facto designs 101

Common Errors 101

summary 101

terminology 102

discussion points 103

endnotes 103

6 survey research methods and sampling 105

introduction 105

purposes of survey research 106

Descriptive Purpose 106

Explanatory Purpose 107

Exploratory Purpose 107

types of survey research 107

in-person interviews 109

Choosing a Type of Interview: Factors to Consider 113

Extent of control 113

Time 114

Location 114

Desired information 114

Role of researcher 115

telephone survey 115

using computers in survey research 117

mail surveys 122

Increasing Return Rates 122

designing questionnaires 124

comparison of types of survey research 128

sampling 129

Probability Sampling Procedures 130

Simple Random Sampling 130

Systematic Sampling 132

Stratified Sampling 132

Cluster Sampling 133

Nonprobability Sampling Procedures 134

Convenience Sampling 134

Purposive Sampling 134

Quota Sampling 135

Snowball Sampling 135

summary 135

terminology 137

discussion points 138

endnotes 139

7 participant observation and case studies 141

introduction 141

characteristics of qualitative research 141

qualitative research strategies 142

participant observation 143

Types of Participant Observation 143

Participant Observation in Criminal Justice Research 144

features of observation 149

Recording Observations 150

Recording Options 151

Analysis and Presentation of Observational Data 152

Matrix, Flow Chart, and Organizational Diagram 153

case studies 154

Characteristics 154

Types 155

Research Questions 156

Data Collection Strategy 156

Analysis and Presentation of Data 156

summary 158

terminology 159

discussion points 159

endnotes 160

8 descriptive, historical, and archival data analyses 161

introduction 161

descriptive research 161

Functions 162

Strengths and Limitations 162

Common Errors 163

Designing Descriptive Research Projects 163

historical research 164

Purposes 164

Research Problems 165

Time and Space Dimensions 165

Designing Historical Research Plan 166

archival or document research 166

Secondary Sources 167

Credibility 167

Personal and Institutional Documents 168

replication of previous research 169

locating documents 170

reviewing related literature 171

Purpose 171

Conducting a Search 172

Writing Reviews 173

summary 175

terminology 176

discussion points 177

endnotes 177

9 ethics in research 179

introduction 179

Academy of Criminal Justice Science (ACJS) code of ethics 180

neutral and impartial research 180

research involving humans 181

Involving Human Subjects without Their Knowledge or Consent 183

Coercing People to Participate 184

Informed Consent 185

Withholding True Nature of Research 186

Deceiving Participants 187

Violating Right of Self-Determination 187

Exposing Subjects to Mental or Physical Stress 188

Inconsiderate and Unfair Treatment 188

Withholding Benefits from Participants in Control Groups 188

Questionable Practices 189

analysis and reporting 190

American Association for Public Opinion Research (AAPOR) code of ethics 191

summary 192

terminology 194

discussion points 194

endnotes 194

10 developing research plans 197

introduction 197

topic selection 197

refining topic and narrowing focus of research 207

literature review 208

Purposes 208

Accessing Research Materials 209

Using Libraries 209

Virtual Libraries 210

Google 211

summary 211

terminology 211

discussion points 211

endnotes 212

11 writing research reports 213

introduction 213

when to begin writing 214

preparatory tips 215

components of report 216

Chapter 1: Introduction and Statement of Hypothesis 216

Introduction 216

Statement of hypothesis 218

Chapter 2: Literature Review 219

Chapter 3: Methodology 220

Research environment 220

Design 221

Sampling 222

Procedures 222

Data analysis 223

Chapter 4: Findings or Results 223

Chapter 5: Discussion 224

Reference Section 224

Abstract 225

summary 225

terminology 226

discussion points 226

endnotes 227

12 program evaluation and policy research 229

introduction 229

defining evaluation research 230

purposes of program evaluation 230

categories of program evaluation research 232

choosing a program evaluation 232

Program Evaluation Methodology 237

policy research 238

policy research planning 239

policy research reporting 240

summary 241

terminology 242

discussion points 242

endnotes 243

13 writing research and grant proposals 245

introduction 245

getting started 246

building a blueprint 246

overview of proposal process 247

Introduction Section 249

Statement of Needs or Problem 250

Project Description 251

Program goals and objectives 251

Methods 252

Evaluation 252

recommended steps for obtaining state and federal funding 253

bases for rejection 254

Project Narrative 254

Problems to Be Addressed 255

Goals and Objectives 255

Project Design 255

Management and Organizational Capabilities 255

Budget 255

Appendixes 257

Single Point of Contact 257

selection criteria 257

peer review 259

project termination 259

summary 260

terminology 261

discussion points 261

endnotes 261

index 263