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1.Introduction 1

1.1 The Concept 1

1.2 Challenges to the Law of Occupation 7

1.3 Legal Sources 11

1.3.1 Laws of international armed conflict 11

1.3.2 Human rights law 12

1.3.3 Law on the use of force， sovereignty， and self-determination： The “illegal occupation” 15

1.3.4 The law on state responsibility 18

1.3.5 Additional sources 18

1.4 Conclusion 19

2.Origins： The Evolution of the Concept of Occupation in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries 20

2.1 The Evolution of a Concept 21

2.1.1 The intellectual roots of an emerging European concept 22

2.1.2 The principle of humanity： The obligation to protect the property of enemy civilians 22

2.1.3 Enter national self-determination： “Occupation” becomes distinct from “conquest” 25

2.2 The Transformation of the Concept of Occupation into European and International Law 31

2.2.1 The doctrine on occupation arrives in the United States 32

2.2.2 Meanwhile in Europe： The Franco-Prussian War and its aftermath 37

2.2.3 Different conceptions of occupation beyond Europe 41

2.3 Conclusion 42

3.The Characterization of Occupation 43

3.1 Spatial Scope 43

3.1.1 Control of the land 43

3.1.2 A personal approach as an additional test 51

3.1.3 “Virtual occupation”？ 53

3.1.4 Maritime resources and airspace 55

3.2 Temporal Scope 55

3.2.1 When occupation begins 55

3.2.2 When occupation ends 56

3.2.3 Pre- and post-occupation obligations 57

3.3 Occupation by Whom？ 58

3.3.1 Who is a foreign power （the “hostile army”） 58

3.3.2 Occupation in a non-international armed conflict？ 61

3.3.3 Occupation by proxies 61

3.3.4 UN-led occupations 62

3.4 The Lack of Sovereign Consent 67

4.The Law on the Administration of Occupied Territories 68

4.1 Background： Three Different Approaches to Regulate an Inherent Conflict of Interests 68

4.1.1 Article 43： “A seeming legal paradise” 68

4.1.2 Article 64 GCIV Focusing on human welfare 72

4.1.3 The human rights dimension 74

4.2 The Scope of the Occupation Administration 76

4.2.1 Generally 76

4.2.2 The management of natural resources 81

4.2.3 The external relations of the occupied territory 83

4.2.4 The occupant’s forward-looking and post-occupation obligations 86

4.3 Stability versus Change： The Level of Respect for the Legal Status Quo 89

4.3.1 Article 43 Hague Regulations 89

4.3.2 Article 64 GCIV 95

4.3.3 Human rights 102

4.4 The Rights and Duties of the Ousted Government 104

4.5 Nationals of the Occupying Power 106

5.Occupations During and After World War I： Early Challenges to the Traditional Law of Occupation 108

5.1 The German Occupation of Belgium， 1914-18 108

5.1.1 Reorganization and regulation of the Belgian economy 110

5.1.2 Changes in the court system 115

5.1.3 Restructuring the Belgian political structure 116

5.1.4 Reactions to German occupation measures 118

5.1.5 The law of occupation in light of the occupation of Belgium 120

5.2 The Armistice Occupation of the Rhineland 122

5.2.1 Occupation policies 123

5.2.2 The German reaction 127

5.2.3 The law of occupation in light of the Armistice Occupation 129

6.The Law of Occupation in the Wake of World War Ⅱ 131

6.1 Occupations by the Axis Powers 132

6.1.1 Japanese occupations 132

6.1.2 Italian occupations 135

6.1.3 German occupations 135

6.1.4 Occupations by the Soviet Union， 1939-40 138

6.1.5 The Finnish occupation of Eastern Karelia 139

6.1.6 The relevance of the Axis and Soviet occupations to the law of occupation： The status of illegal occupations 140

6.2 Allied Occupations during World War Ⅱ 143

6.2.1 British occupation of African territories 143

6.2.2 The first US occupation of the war： French North Africa 151

6.2.3 Aftermath： The changing US attitude toward the administration of occupied territories 152

6.2.4 Unconditional surrender and debellatio： The occupations of Germany and Japan 159

6.2.5 Application and critique of the debellatio doctrine 161

6.3 The Law of Occupation in the Wake of World War Ⅱ：The Surprising Resilience of the Doctrine on Occupation 164

7.Occupations Since the 1970s 167

7.1 Introduction 167

7.2 Annexation： Kuwait， Western Sahara， and East Timor 169

7.2.1 The Iraqi occupation of Kuwait （1990） 170

7.2.2 The Moroccan occupation of Western Sahara （1975） 171

7.2.3 The Indonesian occupation of East Timor （1975-99） 172

7.3 Externally Imposed Regime Change： The Occupations of Afghanistan （by USSR）， Grenada， and Panama 177

7.3.1 The Soviet intervention in Afghanistan （1978-88） 177

7.3.2 The US intervention in Grenada （1983-84） 180

7.3.3 The US intervention in Panama （1989） 183

7.4 Facilitating Internal Regime Change： Cambodia， Afghanistan （by a US-led Coalition）， Bangladesh， Cyprus， Georgia 184

7.4.1 The Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia （1979-89） 185

7.4.2 The US-led “coalition” occupation of Afghanistan （2001-02） 187

7.4.3 India’s involvement in the creation of Bangladesh （1971） 188

7.4.4 The Turkish invasion of Cyprus and the establishment of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus （1974-） 191

7.4.5 The Russian occupations in Georgia （2008-） 194

7.4.6 General observations on humanitarian and self-determination occupations 197

7.5 Security Zones： Israel in Lebanon， US-led Coalition in South/ North Iraq， Turkey in North Iraq， and Uganda in Congo 200

7.6 Conclusion 201

8.The Israeli Occupation of the West Bank and Gaza 203

8.1 The Status of the Territories Occupied by Israel since 1967 203

8.1.1 East Jerusalem 204

8.1.2 The West Bank and Gaza 206

8.1.3 The Israeli-Palestinian Interim Accords and their legal significance 209

8.2 The Actual Administration of the West Bank and Gaza 212

8.2.1 Institutional infrastructure 212

8.2.2 Legislation 213

8.2.3 Administration 213

8.2.4 The court system 215

8.2.5 The Israeli Supreme Court 217

8.3 1967-93： Integration of the Territories with Israel 224

8.3.1 Specific integrative measures 224

8.3.2 Extending the jurisdiction of the Israeli civil courts to transactions in the occupied territories 228

8.3.3 The Jewish settlements and their integration into Israel 233

8.4 1993-Onward： Segregating the Palestinian Population 238

8.5 Assessment According to the Law of Occupation 239

8.5.1 The settlements 239

8.5.2 The economic union 241

8.5.3 Long-term occupations and the law of occupation 244

8.5.4 Is there an obligation to end the occupation？ 244

8.5.5 Changes in the occupant’s powers during long-term occupations 246

9.The Occupation of Iraq 2003-05 249

9.1 The Timeframe of the Occupation in Iraq 250

9.1.1 Pre-occupation responsibilities？ 250

9.1.2 The beginning： When Iraq became occupied 251

9.1.3 The end of occupation 254

9.1.4 Post-occupation responsibilities 256

9.2 The Exercise ofAuthority by the Occupants in Iraq 257

9.2.1 Abolishing the existing political and military institutions 259

9.2.2 Amendments to criminal law and criminal procedure 260

9.2.3 Changes to the court system 261

9.2.4 Human rights legislation 261

9.2.5 Economic reforms 262

9.2.6 Good governance 263

9.2.7 Management of natural resources 264

9.2.8 The transition to democracy 266

9.3 Evaluation 268

9.3.1 The occupation of Iraq in light of the law of occupation 268

9.3.2 The law of occupation in light of the occupation of Iraq 274

10.The Administration of Territory by the United Nations：The Case of UNMIK in Kosovo 276

10.1 Introduction 276

10.2 Case study： Kosovo 279

10.2.1 The exercise of legislative， executive， and judicial powers by the SRSG 282

10.2.2 Accountability mechanisms 288

10.2.3 Assessment 292

10.3 Conclusion： Recognizing the Responsibility to Occupy 296

11.The Law on Post-Occupation： The Lasting Effects of the Occupant’s Legislation 299

11.1 First Period： Until World War Ⅱ 300

11.2 Second Period： The Advent of the GCIV “Grave Breaches” Regime and Human Rights Law 304

11.2.1 Case study 1： Germany 305

11.2.2 Case study 2： Cyprus 306

11.3 Discussion 307

11.3.1 The distinction between the primary norms of the law of occupation and the secondary norms 307

11.3.2 Considerations in balancing the respective interests 312

11.4 Conclusion 317

12.Enforcement Mechanisms for Compliance with the Law of Occupation 318

12.1 Enforcement through Adjudication 319

12.1.1 Direct and indirect judicial review of the legality of the occupation or of occupation policies 320

12.1.2 Civil suits for compensation 333

12.1.3 Criminal proceedings 339

12.2 Enforcement through International Institutions 340

12.2.1 Protecting powers 340

12.2.2 United Nations bodies 343

12.2.3 Missions and Commissions 344

12.2.4 Transparency 346

12.3 Conclusion 347

13.Conclusion 348

Bibliography 353

Index 371