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1 Foundations of Law in the United States 1

Sources of Law in the United States 1

Types of Law in the United States 4

Functions of Law 6

The United States and the Rule of Law 9

A Litigious Society 12

Summary 14

2 History, Function, and Organization of the Federal and State Judicial Systems 17

The Historical Context 17

The U.S. Supreme Court 19

The U.S. Courts of Appeals 31

U.S. District Courts 40

Constitutional Courts and Legislative Courts 45

The Federal Courts in the American Political System 47

State Court Systems 49

State Court Organization 52

Summary 55

3 Administrative and Staff Support in the Judiciary 59

The Judicial Administration Movement 59

Major Administrative Support Structures 63

Personnel Support 73

Summary 81

4 Lawyers, Litigants, and Interest Groups in the Judicial Process 85

Lawyers and the Legal Profession 85

Litigants 99

Interest Groups in the Judicial Process 101

Summary 105

5 Jurisdiction, Workload, and Policy-Making Boundaries of Federal and State Courts 109

Federal Courts 109

Jurisdiction and Workload of State Courts 117

Jurisdiction and Legislative Politics 119

Judicial Self-Restraint 120

Summary 131

6 The Criminal Court Process 135

The Nature and Substance of Crime 135

Categories of Crime 136

Elements of a Crime 140

Procedures Before a Criminal Trial 144

Procedures During a Criminal Trial 158

Procedures After a Criminal Trial 168

Summary 173

7 The Civil Court Process 177

The Nature and Substance of Civil Law 177

The Main Categories of Civil Law 178

The Courts and Other Institutions Concerned with Civil Law 183

The Civil Trial Process 185

Summary 198

8 The Federal and State Judges 201

Background Characteristics of Federal Judges 201

Formal and Informal Qualifications of Federal Judges 210

Qualifications and Backgrounds of State Judges 214

The Federal Selection Process and Its Participants 215

The Selection Process for State Judges 224

Policy Links Between the Citizenry, the President, and the Federal Judiciary 229

The Judicial Socialization Process 240

The Retirement and Removal of Judges 244

Summary 249

9 The Decision-Making Process 255

The Legal Subculture 257

The Democratic Subculture 263

Summary 292

10 Decision Making: The Special Case of Collegial Courts 297

Cue Theory 297

Small-Group Analysis 300

Attitude Theory and Bloc-Formation Analysis 315

Fact Pattern Analysis 319

Summary 321

11 Implementation and Impact of Judicial Policies 327

The Impact of Upper-Court Decisions on Lower Courts 327

Congressional Influences on the Implementation Process 335

Executive Branch Influences on the Implementation Process 338

Other Implementors 341

The Impact of Judicial Policies 344

Summary 350

12 Policy Making by American Judges: An Attempt at Synthesis 355

The Nature of the Case or Issue 355

The Values and Orientations of the Judges 358

The Nature of the Judicial Decision-Making Process 361

The Impact of Extraneous Influences 364

Selected Bibliography 367

Index 377