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1 Theory and method： background to the law of obligations 1

The epistemological dilemma 1

Institutional plan 2

Codes and method 3

English legal mentality 4

Institutional system and the common law 8

2 History and structure of the law of obligations 10

Real and personal remedies and rights 10

Divisions and subdivisions of private law 12

Public law 14

Contract 15

Delict 18

Quasi delict (and liability without fault) 21

Quasi-contract (and unjust enrichment) 23

Alternative approaches 25

3 General theory of obligations 27

Formation of an obligation 27

Content of an obligation 29

Content and rescission 31

Level of obligational duty 32

Obligations and the role of fault 33

Debt and damages actions 36

Extra-contractual liability 38

Obligations as rights 40

Abuse of rights 41

Obligations as property 44

Transfer of obligation rights 46

Extinction of an obligation 46

4 Obligations and the common law 48

Personal actions at common law (forms of action) 48

Causes of action 51

Contract and tort 53

Restitution (unjust enrichment) 55

Remedies 57

Injunctions 59

Specific performance in equity 60

Damages 61

Debt and account 63

Restitutionary interest 65

Rescission 66

5 Contractual obligations： general provisions 69

General considerations 69

Definition of contract 70

Contract and remedies 73

Contract and rights 77

Classification of contracts 78

Bailment and contract 82

Public and private law contracts 83

Commercial and consumer contracts 84

Freedom of contract 85

Good faith 86

Domain of contract 88

6 Enforcing contracts 90

Contract and methodology 90

Formation models 93

Cause (causa) 94

Agreement (conventio) 94

Promise (promissio) 95

Promise and agreement 97

Enforceable promises 99

Difficult cases 101

Absence of clarity 104

Absence of consensus 105

Intention to create legal relations 106

Revocation of an offer 107

Acceptance 108

Consideration 110

Variation of existing contracts 112

Consideration and third parties 114

Deed of covenant 116

7 Escaping from contracts 117

Defective contracts 117

Defective contracts and remedies 120

Implied condition 122

European approach 123

Property problems 123

Fraud and duress 125

Capacity 128

Illegality 129

Cancelled contracts 131

Non-performance of a contract 132

8 Unperformed contracts and appropriate remedies 133

Interpretation and liability 133

Differences of approach 135

Terms 136

Conditions and warranites 137

Implied terms 139

Unfair terms 141

Performance and non-performance of the contract 142

Onerous performance 144

Non-performance and exclusion clauses 145

Performance and third parties 148

Non-performance and termination 149

Non-performance and agreement 150

9 Tortious obligations： general provisions 152

Civilian approach 152

English approach 154

Definitional considerations 156

Purpose and policy of tort 158

Actions for damages 159

Aims of the law of tort 160

Tort and methodology 163

Policy and functionalism 166

Interests and rights 168

Axiology and argumentation 169

Statutory interpretation 170

Methodology： concluding remarks 172

10 Liability and intentional harm 174

Liability and fault 174

Liability for individual acts： general elements 176

Intentional harm 179

Intentional torts 181

Intentional torts and methodology 191

11 Liability for unintentional harm 193

Tort of negligence 193

Breach of duty 194

Duty of care 197

Extension of duty of care 200

Methodological approach to duty 201

Economic loss 203

Psychological damage (nervous shock) 206

Omissions 209

Public bodies 210

Human rights 212

Comparative reflections 213

Unlawful acts 216

12 Liability for things 219

Liability for moveable things 219

Dangerous products 220

Defective equipment 222

Animals 223

Motor vehicles 224

Aircraft 225

Land and buildings： harm on the premises 225

Land and buildings： harm off the premises 229

Liability for dangerous things 234

Occupier’s liability： methodological considerations 236

13 Liability for people 239

Vicarious liability 239

Theory of vicarious liability 242

Non-delegable duty 244

Owners of motor vehicles 247

Publishers 248

14 Liability for words 249

Deceit and negligence 249

Defamation 251

Beyond defamation 253

Intellectual property rights 255

Privacy 256

Professional liability 258

15 Escaping liability 263

Causation： introduction 263

Theories of causation 265

Level 1： actionability 269

Level 2： cause in fact 272

Loss of a chance 273

Overlapping causes and overlapping damage 278

Novus actus interveniens 280

Level 3： remoteness of damage 283

Untypical damage 287

Level 4： causation and remedies 288

Measure of damages 290

16 Beyond contract and tort： restitution 295

Liability for gain 295

Enrichment 297

Expense of another 299

‘Unjust’ (sans cause) 300

Remedies and unjust enrichment 301

Equitable remedies 305

Tracing 307

Present status of restitution 309

17 Transnational law of obligations？ 312

Possibility of harmonisation 313

Harmonisation through science and system 314

Harmonisation through casuistic methods 318

Obstacles to harmonisation 322

Role of comparative law 325

Obligations and property 327

Spirit of non-codification 330

Conclusion： abandoning the obligations category 331

Bibliography 334

Index 341