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1 About Forensic Science 1

SCIENCE AND LAW 1

SCOPE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE 4

ORIGINS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE 8

DEVELOPMENT OF FORENSIC SCIENCE IN THE UNITED STATES 12

LABORATORY ORGANIZATION AND SERVICES 15

FORENSIC SCIENCE INVOLVEMENT IN CRIMINAL CASES 18

FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF FORENSIC SCIENCE 21

2 Physical Evidence 29

INFORMATION THAT PHYSICAL EVIDENCE CAN REVEAL 29

CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE 32

STAGES IN PHYSICAL-EVIDENCE ANALYSIS 38

3 Methods and Techniques in Forensic Science 50

INTRODUCTION 50

PHYSICAL EXAMINATIONS AND METHODS 50

CHEMICAL METHODS 56

BIOLOGICAL METHODS 78

MICROSCOPY AND MICROSCOPICAL METHODS 81

PRESENT-DAY CAPABILITIES 92

4 Arson Accelerants and Explosives 95

INTRODUCTION 95

CHEMISTRY OF FIRES AND FUELS 96

FIRE PATTERNS 106

RECOGNITION AND COLLECTION OF ARSON EVIDENCE 107

LABORATORY EXAMINATION OF ARSON EVIDENCE 111

EXPLOSIVES AND EXPLOSIONS 114

LABORATORY ANALYSIS OF EXPLOSIVE RESIDUES 119

5 Drug Analysis and Forensic Toxicology 123

INTRODUCTION 123

CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF DRUGS 124

POISONS—TOXIC SUBSTANCES 131

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF DRUGS AND POISONS 133

LABORATORY EXAMINATION OF DRUGS AND TOXIC SUBSTANCES 133

BREATH-ALCOHOL AND BLOOD-ALCOHOL ANALYSIS 140

6 Transfer and Trace Evidence 146

INTRODUCTION 146

TRANSFER AND TRACE EVIDENCE: NATURE, DIFFERENCES,DIVERSITY, OCCURRENCE 147

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF TRACE AND TRANSFER EVIDENCE 150

LABORATORY EXAMINATIONS OF TRANSFER AND TRACE EVIDENCE 159

7 Glass and Soil 168

INTRODUCTION 168

GLASS 168

SOIL 180

8 Fibers and Hairs 192

INTRODUCTION 192

FIBERS 192

HAIRS 205

COLLECTION OF FIBER AND HAIR EVIDENCE 209

LABORATORY EXAMINATION OF FIBERS AND HAIRS 212

9 Blood 230

INTRODUCTION 230

THE NATURE OF BLOOD 231

RECONSTRUCTIONS FROM BLOODSTAIN PATTERNS AND CHARACTERISTICS 233

INDIVIDUALIZING CHARACTERISTICS OF BLOOD 233

RULES OF INHERITANCE 241

COLLECTION, PRESERVATION, AND PACKAGING OF BLOOD EVIDENCE 244

LABORATORY EXAMINATION AND INTERPRETATION OF BLOODSTAIN EVIDENCE 246

IDENTIFICATION OF BLOOD 246

10 Body Fluids 264

INTRODUCTION 264

ABO-BLOOD-GROUP SUBSTANCES IN BODY FLUIDS—SECRETOR SYSTEM 265

COLLECTION, PACKAGING, AND PRESERVATION OF EVIDENCE 266

EVIDENCE COLLECTION IN SEXUAL ASSAULT CASES 267

LABORATORY ANALYSIS OF SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS 269

LABORATORY ANALYSIS OF SALIVA AND SALIVA STAINS 277

LABORATORY ANALYSIS OF OTHER BODY FLUIDS AND SECRETIONS 278

11 Physical Patterns 284

INTRODUCTION 284

PHYSICAL PATTERNS IN IDENTIFICATION 285

PHYSICAL PATTERNS IN INDIVIDUALIZATION 286

PHYSICAL PATTERNS IN RECONSTRUCTION 294

DOCUMENTATION, COLLECTION, AND PRESERVATION OF PATTERN EVIDENCE 319

LABORATORY EXAMINATION OF PHYSICAL PATTERN EVIDENCE 324

12 Fingerprints and Other Patterns forPersonal Identification 330

INTRODUCTION 330

FINGERPRINTS 331

OTHER PAPILLARY OR FRICTION RIDGE PATTERNS 352

ODONTOLOGICAL PATTERNS 353

VOICEPRINT INDIVIDUALIZATION 354

MISCELLANEOUS PATTERNS FOR HUMAN IDENTIFICATION AND INDIVIDUALIZATION 356

13 Questioned Document Examination 360

INTRODUCTION 360

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENT EVIDENCE 362

WRITING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS 362

HANDWRITING COMPARISON 366

MECHANICAL IMPRESSIONS 370

RECONSTRUCTIONS 376

14 Toolmarks and Firearms 383

INTRODUCTION 383

TOOLMARK COMPARISON 384

FUNDAMENTALS OF FIREARMS 388

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF FIREARMS EVIDENCE 398

FIREARMS COMPARISON 399

RECONSTRUCTION IN SHOOTING CASES AND GUNSHOT RESIDUE ANALYSIS 404

NUMBER RESTORATIONS 408

Appendixes 413

1 Scientific Measurement—Metric System 413

2 General Crime-Scene Procedure 415

INTRODUCTION 415

PROTECTION OF THE SCENE 415

RECOGNITION 418

DOCUMENTATION 418

SEARCHES 419

COLLECTION 423

MARKING OF EVIDENCE 423

PACKAGING 424

TRANSPORTATION 425

3 Fundamentals of Photography 426

INTRODUCTION 426

LIGHT AND LIGHTING 427

LENSES 428

FILM AND ELEMENTARY PHOTOGRAPHIC CHEMISTRY 432

FILM SPEED, GRAIN SIZE, AND CONTRAST 435

THE CAMERA 437

CONTROL OF EXPOSURE 438

THE CAMERA—VIEWING AND FOCUSING SYSTEMS 442

EXPOSURE DETERMINATION METHODS 444

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY 446

CONCLUSION 448

INDEX 451