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Introduction 1

1 Origins and Developments of Arrangements to Allocate Responsibility for the Protection of Refugees 9

1.1 Fundamental Concepts 10

1.1.1 The international legal framework of refugee protection: historical background 10

1.1.2 The establishment of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 12

1.1.3 The 1951 Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees 13

1.1.4 Refugees and asylum 15

1.2 The Refugee Situation at the End of the 1970s 17

1.2.1 'Refugees in orbit' 20

1.2.2 The 1977 United Nations' conference on territorial asylum 21

1.2.3 Conclusions of the Executive Committee of the High Commissioner's Programme 23

1.2.4 The Council of Europe 26

1.3 The European Union 30

1.3.1 The European Commission's proposals 30

1.3.2 The 1985 Schengen Agreement and the 1990 Implementing Convention 33

1.3.3 The elaboration of the Dublin Convention 35

1.3.4 The Amsterdam Treaty and the 'Communitarisation' of visas, asylum, immigration, and other policies related to the movement of persons 36

1.3.4.1 An area of freedom, security and justice' 36

1.3.4.2 Provisions on asylum, refugees, and displaced persons (Article 63.1 and 2 ECT): harmonizing asylum laws in the European Union 38

1.3.4.3 The British/Irish and Danish 'opt-outs' 41

1.3.4.4 The next stage: the Lisbon Treaty 43

1.4 Conclusion 44

2 Safe Third Country Practices, Readmission, and Extraterritorial Processing 45

2.1 Safe Third Country Practices 46

2.1.1 Definition 46

2.1.2 Origins and development 47

2.1.2.1 Effective protection 52

2.1.2.2 Contact between the asylum seeker and the third country and consent of the third state to the removal 56

2.1.2.3 Procedural issues concerning the application of the safe third country concept 59

2.1.3 Conclusion 66

2.2 Readmission Agreements 67

2.2.1 Definition 61

2.2.2 Evolution of readmission agreements 67

2.2.3 Characteristics 69

2.2.4 Readmission as a component of the European Unions external dimension of asylum and immigration policies 71

2.3 Extraterritorial Processing 78

2.3.1 Origins 78

2.3.2 European proposals for extraterritorial processing 78

2.3.3 Analysis 81

2.4 The Way Forward 83

2.5 Conclusion 87

3 Allocation of Responsibility for Examining an Application for Asylum under the Dublin Regime 89

3.1 Elaboration of the Dublin Regulation 90

3.2 Principles 91

3.2.1 Only one State is responsible for examining an application for asylum 92

3.2.2 The State responsible is under the obligation to guarantee effective access to the asylum procedure 92

3.2.3 Scope 94

3.3 Criteria Determining the State Responsible 95

3.3.1 Family unity 96

3.3.2 Visa and residence permit 101

3.3.3 Illegal crossing of the territory of a Member State 101

3.3.4 Control of the entry of the alien into the territory of the Member States 102

3.3.5 The humanitarian and 'sovereignty' clauses 102

3.4 Procedure 111

3.4.1 Transfer of the asylum seeker to the responsible State 111

3.4.2 Rules of evidence 115

3.4.3 Identification of the asylum seeker: the Eurodac Regulation 117

3.5 Assessment 121

3.6 Conclusion 125

4 The Impact of Safe Third Country Practices on Inter-State Relations 127

4.1 Protection Elsewhere or Mere Transit: The Relevance and Scope of Article 31 CSR 127

4.2 International Cooperation to Protect Refugees: Solidarity, Burden-Sharing, and Good-Neighbourliness 138

4.2.1 The principle of solidarity and burden-sharing 139

4.2.1.1 International instruments 140

4.2.1.2 Burden-sharing and non-refoulement 144

4.2.1.3 International practice 146

4.2.1.3.1 Fiscal burden-sharing 147

4.2.1.3.2 Physical burden-sharing 150

4.2.1.3.3 Comprehensive approaches 156

4.2.1.4 The legal relevance of the principle of solidarity and burden-sharing 161

4.2.1.5 Safe third country practices and burden-sharing 164

4.2.2 The principle of good-neighbourliness 167

4.3 Conclusion 170

5 States' Obligations Towards Refugees 173

5.1 The Obligation of Non-Refoulement 173

5.1.1 The obligation of non-refoulement under international refugee law 174

5.1.1.1 Nature and scope of Article 33 CSR: the prohibition of expulsion or return ('refoulement') 174

5.1.1.2 States' obligation to implement the Refugee Convention 181

5.1.2 Non-refoulement under international human rights law 187

5.1.2.1 Non-refoulement under the European Convention on Human Rights 189

5.1.2.1.1 Applicable standard 191

5.1.2.1.2 Jurisprudence of relevance to safe third country practices 194

5.1.2.2 Article 3 of the Convention Against Torture 199

5.1.3 Non-refoulement as a customary obligation 204

5.2 Other Human Rights Obligations 209

5.2.1 The right to seek and enjoy asylum from persecution 209

5.2.2 The right to leave one's country 212

5.2.3 Other relevant international refugee law and human rights obligations 214

5.3 Removal to a Safe Third Country and States' Obligations: The Content and Scope of Effective Protection 217

5.4 Conclusion 221

6 Supervision at the Level of the European Union 223

6.1 The Court of Justice under the EC Treaty 224

6.1.1 Remedies before the European Court of Justice 224

6.1.1.1 Failure to comply with the Treaty: Articles 226 and 227 ECT 225

6.1.1.2 Review of the legality of Community acts 227

6.1.1.2.1 Reviewable acts 228

6.1.1.2.2 Grounds for annulment 228

6.1.1.2.3 Applicants 228

6.1.1.3 Failure to act: Article 232 ECT 232

6.1.1.4 Preliminary ruling: Article 68.1 ECT 232

6.1.1.5 Competence to rule on the interpretation of Title IV ECT 236

6.1.2 Consequences of the British/Irish and Danish 'Opt-out' 237

6.1.3 Intervention of UNHCR in ECJ proceedings 237

6.1.4 Assessment of existing remedies 238

6.2 The European Court of Justice and Fundamental Rights 240

6.2.1 Fundamental rights as general principles of European Community law 240

6.2.2 The European Court of Justice and the European Court of Human Rights 242

6.2.3 Fundamental rights in European Treaties 245

6.2.4 The latest twist: the Charter of Fundamental Rights 247

6.3 Conclusion 249

Chapter 7 International Supervision 251

7.1 Supervisory Mechanisms Relevant to the Protection of Refugees and Asylum Seekers 251

7.1.1 Supervision by or on behalf of the organization 252

7.1.1.1 The Executive Committee of the High Commissioners Programme 252

7.1.1.2 UNHCR's function of international protection 255

7.1.1.2.1 The crisis of protection: UNHCR in the 1990s 257

7.1.1.2.2 UNHCR's position on safe third country practices 258

7.1.1.3 Article 35 CSR 261

7.1.1.4 Advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice 264

7.1.1.5 Human rights charter-based bodies 264

7.1.2 Supervision by States: Article 38 CSR 265

7.1.3 Supervision by individuals 266

7.2 Future Prospects 267

7.2.1 Supervision by or on behalf of UNHCR 267

7.2.1.1 UNHCR's international protection mandate 267

7.2.1.1.1 The Global Consultations and the Agenda for Protection 267

7.2.1.1.2 Regulating secondary movements: 'Convention Plus' and other initiatives 271

7.2.1.1.3 Conclusion 275

7.2.1.2 The Executive Committee of the High Commissioner's Programme 276

7.2.1.3 Establishment of an independent body to examine State reports 278

7.2.2 Supervision by individuals 282

7.3 Conclusion 284

Conclusion 285

Select Bibliography 289

Index 335