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PART Ⅰ INTRODUCTION 3

1 FUNDAMENTALS OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW 3

1.1 The notion of international criminal law (ICL) 3

1.2 General features of ICL 4

1.3 The notion of international crimes 11

1.4 Sources of ICL 13

1.5 The historical evolution of inte rnational crimes 27

2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW 32

2.1 Preliminary remarks 32

2.2 The principle of individual criminal responsibility 33

2.3 The principle of legality of crimes 36

2.4 Articulations of the principle of legality 41

2.5 The principle of legality of penalties 51

3 THE ELEMENTS OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMES 53

3.1 The objective and subjective elements of crimes 53

3.2 The structural elements of international crimes 53

3.3 General features of the subjective element 56

3.4 Substantive rules setting out the mental element required for crimes 57

3.5 General notions of mens rea common to most legal systems of the world 58

3.6 General categories of mens rea: intent 60

3.7 Recklessness 66

3.8 Culpable or gross negligence 70

3.9 The ICC Statute 73

3.10 Judicial determination of the mental element 74

PART Ⅱ SUBSTANTIVE CRIMINAL LAW SECTION I INTERNATIONAL CRIMES 81

4 WAR CRIMES 81

4.1 The notion 81

4.2 The need for a link between the offence and an armed conflict 82

4.3 Establishing whether a serious violation of IHL has been criminalized 84

4.4 The objective elements 87

4.5 The subjective elements 92

4.6 The definition of war crimes in the ICC Statute 94

5 CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY 98

5.1 The notion 98

5.2 The origin of the notion 101

5.3 The objective elements 109

5.4 The subjective elements 114

5.5 The possible authors 116

5.6 The possible victims 117

5.7 Customary international law and Article 7 of the ICC Statute 123

6 GENOCIDE 127

6.1 The notion 127

6.2 The 1948 Convention on Genocide 127

6.3 Developments in the case law on genocide 131

6.4 The objective elements 133

6.5 The subjective elements 137

6.6 Problematical aspects of genocide 138

6.7 Genocide and crimes against humanity 144

6.8 Article 6 of the ICC Statute and customary international law 146

7 TORTURE AS A DISCRETE CRIME, AND AGGRESSION 148

7.1 Introduction 148

7.2 Torture as a discrete crime 149

7.3 The crime of aggression 152

8 TERRORISM AS AN INTERNATIONAL CRIME 162

8.1 A current misconception: the alleged lack of a generally agreed definition of terrorism 162

8.2 Factors pointing to a generally agreed definition of terrorism in time of peace 164

8.3 The ingredients of international terrorism as a discrete international crime in time of peace 166

8.4 Specific sub-categories of international terrorism as a discrete international crime 169

8.5 International terrorism in armed conflicts: a sub-category of war crimes 171

8.6 International terrorism as a sub-category of crimes against humanity 175

8.7 Summing up 177

8.8 The general question of multiplicity of offences 178

SECTION Ⅱ MODES OF CRIMINAL LIABILITY 187

9 PERPETRATION AND JOINT CRIMINAL ENTERPRISE 187

9.1 General 187

9.2 Perpetration 188

9.3 Co-perpetration 189

9.4 Participation in a joint criminal enterprise to commit international crimes 189

10 OTHER MODES OF LIABILITY 214

10.1 Aiding and abetting 214

10.2 Incitement as a form of participation in international crimes 218

10.3 Inchoate crimes: general 219

10.4 Attempt 220

10.5 Planning 225

10.6 Conspiracy 227

10.7 Incitement to genocide 229

10.8 Ordering 230

11 CRIMINAL LIABILITY FOR OMISSIONS 233

11.1 General 233

11.2 Rules imposing a positive obligation to act 234

11.3 Culpable omission of an act mandated by an international criminal rule 235

11.4 The responsibility of superiors 236

SECTION Ⅲ CIRCUMSTANCES EXCLUDING CRIMINAL LIABILITY 255

12 JUSTIFICATIONS AND EXCUSES 255

12.1 The distinction between justifications and excuses 255

12.2 ICL: general 258

12.3 Self-defence 259

12.4 Excuses: two main categories 262

12.5 Excuses based on lack of individual autonomy 263

13 OTHER EXCUSES: SUPERIOR ORDER, NECESSITY, DURESS, AND MISTAKE 268

13.1 Excuses where lack of mens rea derives from external circumstances 268

13.2 The question of superior orders: may they be pleaded as a defence? 268

13.3 Necessity and duress 280

13.4 Mistake of fact 290

13.5 Mistake of law 294

14 IMMUNITIES 302

14.1 General: various classes of immunities 302

14.2 Functional and personal immunities provided for in international customary law 303

14.3 The customary rule lifting functional immunities with respect to international crimes 305

14.4 International personal immunities 309

14.5 National personal immunities 314

PART Ⅲ PROSECUTION AND PUNISHMENT BY INTERNATIONAL COURTS 317

15 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNALS 317

15.1 Abortive early attempts (1919-1945) 317

15.2 The Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals (1945-1947) 319

15.3 The work of the ILC (1950-1954) 323

15.4 The Post-Cold War 'new world order' and the establishment of ad hoc Tribunals (1993-1994) 324

15.5 The drafting and adoption of the Statute of the ICC (1994-1998) 328

15.6 Other criminal tribunals 330

16 INTERNATIONAL VERSUS NATIONAL JURISDICTION 336

16.1 Primacy and complementarity 336

16.2 The primacy of international ad hoc Tribunals 339

16.3 The complementarity of the ICC 342

16.4 The Nuremberg scheme versus the ICC scheme 344

16.5 The need for State cooperation 346

16.6 Models of cooperation 346

16.7 Cooperation of States under the ICTY and ICTR scheme 347

16.8 Cooperation of States under the ICC scheme 349

16.9 The question of surrender of nationals 351

17 THE ADOPTION OF THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE ADVERSARIAL SYSTEM 353

17.1 The adversarial versus the inquisitorial system: general 353

17.2 How the two models work: a comparison 355

17.3 The transposition of the adversarial model on to the international legal level 366

17.4 The principal elements of the inquisitorial model incorporated into international procedure 371

17.5 Towards a 'mixed' procedural model 376

18 GENERAL PRINCIPLES GOVERNING INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIALS 378

18.1 The nature and role of principles 378

18.2 The principle that judges must be independent and impartial 379

18.3 The presumption of innocence 380

18.4 The principle of fair and expeditious trial 383

18.5 The principle that the accused should be present at his trial 389

19 STAGES OF INTERNATIONAL PROCEEDINGS IN OUTLINE I PRE-TRIAL AND TRIAL 395

(A) PROSECUTOR'S INVESTIGATIONS AND PRE-TRIAL PROCEEDINGS 395

19.1 General 395

19.2 The setting in motion of international criminal investigations 395

19.3 Conditions the prosecutor must fulfil before initiating an investigation 397

19.4 Conduct of investigations by the prosecutor 400

19.5 Pre-trial proceedings 407

(B) TRIAL PROCEEDINGS 409

19.6 Case presentation 409

19.7 Rules of evidence 413

19.8 Control of proceedings 417

19.9 Deliberations 418

19.10 Sentencing 420

19.11 Reparation or compensation to victims 422

20 APPEALS AND ENFORCEMENT 424

20.1 General 424

(A) appeals 425

20.2 Appeals against interlocutory decisions 425

20.3 Appeals against judgment or sentence 427

(B) review 429

20.4 Review of judgment or sentence 429

20.5 Review of other final decisions 430

(C) ENFORCEMENT OF SENTENCES 431

20.6 Place of imprisonment 431

20.7 Conditions of detention 431

20.8 Reduction or commutation of sentence and pardon 432

20.9 Supervision of imprisonment 434

21 THE SPECIFICITY OF INTERNATIONAL TRIALS 435

21.1 The need for international trials 435

21.2 Merits of international criminal justice 438

21.3 The main traits of international criminal proceedings 440

21.4 Main problems besetting international criminal proceedings 442

Index 445