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1. Serious Offenders and their Researchers 1

Pre-1850 Period: Social Commentary on Robbers,Vagrants, and Thieves 2

Eighteenth-century moral panics and newspaper reportage 5

More informed debate? 8

Into the nineteenth century 9

1850-1945: The Beginning of a Systematic Approach 10

Conceiving the criminal classes 11

A criminal aristocracy or pluckless guinea pigs? 12

The production of knowledge on the criminal classes 16

A surfeit of science? 19

1910-1945: New pragmatism and research 20

1945-2010: Academic Research on Serious Offenders 22

The 1970s 24

The 1980s 25

The 1990s to the twenty-first century 30

Conclusion 32

2. Our Methodology 35

The Main Sources 35

Grouping Our Cases 37

Supporting Data 37

Life Grids 39

The Construction of a Quantitative Dataset 44

Ethics in Historical Methodology 46

3. Serious Offenders and the Legislation that 'Produced' Them 49

The Legislative Framework 1824-1940 49

Vagrancy legislation 50

Legislating against the criminal classes 55

Punishing Offenders 56

The Penal Acts and Punitiveness 60

Habitual Offender Legislation 65

Assessing the Impact of the Legislation 69

Indeterminate Sentences 74

The Strange Death of Preventative Detention 76

Conclusion 84

4. Understanding the Evidence 85

Victorian and Edwardian Thoughts on the Scale of the Problem 85

Measuring Serious Crime 87

Tracking and Recording Habitual Offenders 92

Towards the development of a 'system' 92

Surveillance in the era of habitual offender legislation 96

How the 'system' worked in practice 104

Case Studies 104

William Atkinson (alias Wilson) 104

James Robertson 108

Robert Hilton 113

Thomas King 115

Conclusion 116

5. The Impact of Social and Personal Factors on Serious Offending 119

A General Description of the Cases 119

Recidivism 119

Marriage and family 121

Employment 123

Typical habitual offenders 124

Was Employment Related to Offending Patterns? 126

Peripatetic offending and itinerancy 129

Body art and disfiguration 130

Aliases 131

Criminal Careers 132

Onset 132

Types of offending 135

Dangerousness 140

Experience of incarceration 141

Persistence and desistence in offending careers 142

Conclusion 152

6. Hunting Men Down to Honesty and Respectability 155

Applying the Acts 155

The Effectiveness of the Acts 159

The Impact of Imprisonment on Offending Careers 161

The timing of imprisonment 161

Was the length of sentence influential? 163

Throwing away the key--the Victorian and Edwardian view 164

The impact of imprisonment on employment and family life 174

Post-release assistance: discharged prisoner associations 178

What was the Impact of Police Surveillance on Offending? 183

The impact of supervision on employment and family 189

Did the Penal Servitude and Habitual Offender Acts 'Work'? 190

Conclusion 196

7. Making Sense of Historical and Modern Systems of Control and Surveillance 197

Public Protection and the Criminal Justice Process in the Modern Era 197

A 'New' Penology? 201

Critiquing the New Penology 203

The New Penology: Backdated to the 1860s? 204

Realistic Evaluation 206

Lessons for Our Understanding of How These Acts 'Worked' 216

Bibliography 219

Index 233