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PART Ⅰ. THE LEGAL STRUCTURE OF THE REGULATION OF INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC RELATIONS 2

Chapter 1. The Policies Underlying International Economic Relations 2

1.1 International Economic Relations and the Law 2

1.2 The Growth and Importance of International Trade 8

1.3 Economic Theory and International Economic Policy 10

1.4 Political Goals and International Economic Policy 28

Appendix 30

Chapter 2. International Commercial Transactions 35

2.1 Introduction 35

2.2 International Sales Transactions 38

2.3 Resolving International Commercial Disputes 63

2.4 Problem 71

Chapter 3. The United States Constitution and Regulation of International Economic Affairs 74

3.1 Introduction to Chapters 3 and 4 74

3.2 The United States Constitution and International Economic Relations 77

3.3 International Agreements and U.S. Law 112

3.4 Presidential Authority and Trade Legislation in the United States 128

3.5 The Courts and Foreign Relations 160

3.6 Federal-State Relations and International Economic Regulation 169

Chapter 4. National Government Regulation of International Economic Transactions 196

4.1 Introduction 196

4.2 The European Community 199

4.3 Japan 223

4.4 Nonmarket Economies 244

4.5 Developing Countries 246

Chapter 5. International Economic Regulation and the Bret-ton Woods System 251

5.1 Introduction to International Economic Law and Institutions 251

5.2 International Law: Role of Custom and Treaties--Individual Rights and State Responsibility 258

5.3 Multilateral Economic Treaties and Institutions: The Bretton Woods System 270

5.4 The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 293

5.5 GATT Trade Negotiating Rounds 324

5.6 Dispute Resolution and Sanctions in GATT 332

5.7 The International Economic Regulatory System Viewed as a Whole: Problems to Consider 357

PART Ⅱ. REGULATORY PRINCIPLES AND IMPORT RESTRAINTS: THE CORE OF THE SYSTEM 362

Chapter 6. Tariffs, Quotas and Nontariff Barriers 362

6.1 Introduction 362

6.2 National Tariffs and Customs Law 369

6.3 GATT and International Tariff Commitments: The Bindings 395

6.4 Quotas and Their Application 420

Chapter 7. Nondiscrimination and the Most-Favored-Nation Clause 428

7.1The Most-Favored-Nation Obligation 428

7.2 MFN in Operation 443

7.3 Customs Unions and Free Trade Areas 454

7.4 Preferences and MFN Exceptions 464

7.5 The Future of MFN in GATT 481

Chapter 8. The National Treatment Clause and Nontariff Barriers 483

8.1 Introduction 483

8.2 The National Treatment Obligation in Operation 486

8.3 Exception for National Social and Economic Programs 510

8.4 Government Purchases 522

8.5 Product Standards and Technical Barriers to Trade 532

Chapter 9. Escape Clauses, Safeguards and Adjustment Policies 538

9.1 Introduction: The Policies and History of Safeguard Measures 538

9.2 The Prerequisites and Causal Requirements of an Escape Clause Remedy 550

9.3 Remedies and Procedures for Escape Clause Cases 591

9.4 Voluntary Restraint Agreements and Special Safeguards Techniques 609

9.5 Adjustment Assistance 623

9.6 Safeguards and Structural Adjustment: The Puzzle and Prospects for Reform 629

Chapter 10. Responses to Unfair Acts in International Trade 648

10.1 Introduction 648

10.2 Dumping and Antidumping Duties 653

10.3 Subsidies and Countervailing Duties 723

10.4 Additional Remedies for Unfair Trade Practices 789

10.5 Retaliation in Trade Policy: Section 301 Actions 802

PART Ⅲ. SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF REGULATING INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC RELATIONS 826

Chapter 11. Monetary Affairs and Trade Policy: Operation of the International Monetary Fund 826

11.1 Introduction 826

11.2 Operations of the International Monetary Fund: International Liquidity 845

11.3 International and National Regulation of Foreign Exchange Restrictions 861

11.4 Trade Measures for Balance of Payments Reasons 873

Chapter 12. Export Controls Under GATT and National Law 883

12.1 Introduction 883

12.2 International Regulation of Export Controls 887

12.3 United States Export Control Law 893

Chapter 13. Trade Controls for National Security and Political Purposes 911

13.1 Introduction: Historical Background 911

13.2 International Rules and National Security and Political Controls on Trade 915

13.3 U.S. Trade Controls for National Security Purposes 918

13.4 U.S. Trade Controls for Foreign Policy Purposes 925

13.5 The Extraterritorial Application of Trade Controls 928

13.6 The Effectiveness of Trade Controls Imposed for National Security or Foreign Policy Purposes 939

13.7 A Case Study: United Nations Sanctions Against Rhodesia 944

13.8 Foreign Use of Trade Controls: U.S. Antiboycott Rules 951

Chapter 14. International Trade in Agricultural and Other Commodities 953

14.1 Introduction 953

14.2 Agricultural Products and International Trade Rules 955

14.3 Commodities and Commodity Agreements 970

14.4 Cartels and Producer Alliances 982

Chapter 15. International Trade in Services 988

15.1 Introduction 988

15.2 U.S. Law and Trade in Services 992

15.3 Negotiating Rules on International Trade in Services 993

15.4 A Case Study: Insurance 1008

15.5 International Legal Services 1016

Chapter 16. International Regulation of National Controls on International Investment 1018

16.1 Introduction 1018

16.2 National Controls on International Investment 1028

16.3 International Regulation of National Controls on International Investment 1035

16.4 International Law and Expropriation 1039

16.5 Alternatives to Investment: Agents, Distributors and Licensing 1044

Chapter 17. Multinational Enterprises 1047

17.1 Introduction 1047

17.2 Codes of Conduct for Multinational Enterprise: The Philosophical Problems 1049

17.3 The 1976 OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises 1057

Chapter 18. Restrictive Business Practices and International Economic Relations 1072

18.1 Introduction 1072

18.2 The Relationship of Competition and Trade Policies 1073

18.3 Application of National Antitrust Laws to International Transactions 1077

18.4 International Efforts to Control Restrictive Business Practices 1095

Chapter 19. Taxation and International Commerce 1101

19.1 Introduction 1101

19.2 Comparative Tax Burdens and Their Effect on International Trade and Investment 1102

19.3 Taxation of Multinational Enterprises 1107

19.4 U.S. State Taxation of International Trade and Investment 1124

PART Ⅳ. MANAGING WORLD ECONOMIC INTERDEPENDENCE 1138

Chapter 20. Developing Countries and the GATT System 1138

20.1 Introduction 1138

20.2 GATT Rules and Developing Countries 1140

20.3 The Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) 1154

20.4 Initiatives for a "New International Economic Order" (NIEO) 1166

20.5 Developing Countries and the International Debt Crisis 1171

Chapter 21. Nonmarket Economies, State Trading and International Economic Regulation 1174

21.1 Trade Between Market and Nonmarket Economies 1174

21.2 GATT and Nonmarket Economies: The Problem of Interface 1179

21.3 The United States and Communist Countries 1187

21.4 Countertrade 1195

Chapter 22. Interdependence and the Industrial Market Economies 1202

22.1 The Problems of Interdependence 1202

22.2 Targeting and Industrial Policy 1203

22.3 The Houdaille Case 1211

22.4 Levels of Barriers to Trade: A Taxonomic Note 1215

Chapter 23. Perspectives and Conclusions 1220

23.1 Reflecting on the Problems Examined in This Book 1220

23.2 Legal Rules or Government Discretion梂hich Model Is Best? 1221

23.3 Managing Economic Interdependence 1241

INDEX 1247