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Introduction 1

Ⅰ. Background Elements 4

Ⅱ. The Book 8

Chapter 1 Rights to AnGR 9

Ⅰ. Sovereignty Rights 9

Ⅱ. Tangible 'Classical' Property 10

Ⅲ. Intangible 'Intellectual' Property (Minus Patents) 10

A. Trademarks 12

B. Geographical Indications 12

C. Copyright 15

D. Undisclosed Information (Trade Secrets) 16

Ⅳ. The Patent System 19

A. Patentability 20

B. Scope of Patent (Rights) 22

C. Patents and Biotechnology 24

1. Patentability 25

2. Scope of Patent (Rights) 26

3. Various Criticisms 28

4. Biopiracy 32

D. Patents and AnGR 34

Chapter 2 Patenting AnGR: A Comparison between the United States,　Europe and Canada 41

Ⅰ. The United States 42

A. 1873-1980: Historical Background 45

B. 1980: Anything under the Sun that Is Made by Man Is Patentable 48

1. Product of Nature? 48

2. Living Matter? 49

3. Anything under the Sun? 50

4. Dissenting Justices Brennan, White, Marshall and Powell 51

C. 1987: Ex Parte Allen 52

D. 1987: Notice on Animal Patentability 53

E. 1990: Amgen v. Chugai Pharmaceutical 54

F. 1991: Animal Legal Defense Fund (Et al.) v. Quigg 54

G. 2001: J.E.M. v. Pioneer Hi-Bred 55

H. 2004-2010: Monsanto v. X & Y 56

I. 2011: The Situation Today 58

Ⅱ. Europe 60

A. The Biotechnology Directive 62

B. The Exclusion of Animal Varieties 64

1. Rationale 65

2. Taxonomical Rank of 'Variety': Definitions and Interpretations 68

a. Biological Definition 69

b. 'Breeds' 70

c. EPO Definition 71

d. EPO Definition: (Analogy to) Plant Varieties 73

e. EPO Definition: Individually Claimed Varieties versus Inventions Which Technical Feasibility Is Confined to a Particular Variety 79

f. EPO Definition: The Role of Process Patents 81

Ⅰ. The Directly Derived Products of a Patentable Process 81

Ⅱ. Products of a Microbiological Process 82

Ⅲ. Products of Genetic Engineering 83

C. Summary 83

Ⅲ. Canada 84

A. Before 'Harvard College' 86

B. 2002: Harvard College 89

C. 2004: Monsanto v. Schmeiser 92

D. Today 97

Ⅳ. Conclusion 100

Chapter 3 Patenting AnGR: Impact on Ownership Traditions in Agriculture 103

Ⅰ. Property over (Agricultural) Animals 104

A. Traditional, Individual Ownership 106

B. Community Ownership 107

C. Contractual Limitations and Herd-Books 109

1. Contractual Limitations 109

2. Herd-Books 111

Ⅱ. The Impact of Patents 114

A. The Patentability of Essentially Biotechnological Processes 115

1. 1988-1998: Essentially Biological = Based upon the Essence of Invention and the Totality of Human Intervention 118

2. Never in Place: Essentially Biological = If At Least One Step Is Biological 119

3. 1998-2010: Essentially Biological = If At Least One Step Is Not Biological 119

4. 2010-Today: Essentially Biological = Even When a Step of a Technical Nature Is Included, I.( This Only Serves to Enable or Assist the Performance of the Crossing Steps 121

5. The Effect of, and Need for, This Distinction? 125

B. Extension over Progeny 126

1. The Theory of Exhaustion 129

2. Product Patents 131

3. Process Patents 133

4. Farmers' Privileges 136

Ⅲ. Conclusion 138

Chapter 4 Patenting AnGR: Issues of Animal Welfare 141

Ⅰ. Animal Welfare in Law 141

A. On Animal Dignity and Legal Welfarism 142

B. Animal Welfare Regulations in Practice 146

1. The Laws 146

2. Differentiations 148

a. Differentiations on the Basis of the Aim of the Regulation 148

b. Differentiations amongst Species and Purpose 148

Ⅱ. Coherence or Splendid Isolation? Welfare and Patent Law 150

A. Existing Options: Ordre Pubic and Morality Exclusions 151

1. Legal Definition of 'Morality' and 'Ordre Public' 152

a. Morality 153

b. Ordre Public 153

2. What Is Being Assessed? 155

3. Practical Application 156

a. United States and Canada 156

b. Europe 159

Ⅰ. Morality 160

Ⅱ. Ordre Public 170

B. A Necessity for Exclusions or Differentiations(?) 172

Ⅲ. Conclusion 173

Chapter 5 AnGR, Intellectual Property and Biodiversity: The Positive Angle 175

Ⅰ. The Market Failure in Animal Biodiversity 179

Ⅱ. Conservation and the Law 182

Ⅲ. Conservation and the Market: The Question of (Intellectual Property) Rights 188

A. Geographical Indications: Trademarks 189

B. Patents 191

C. Sui Generis IP Systems for Animal Breeds 193

1. The International Legal Framework 195

2. Sui Generis Systems: Examples 196

3. A Sui Generis System for AnGR Innovation: Details 201

a. Analogies to Plants and Their Systems? 201

b. The Questions of Design 203

Ⅳ. Conclusion 207

Chapter 6 Patenting AnGR Animal Genetic Resources and International Regulation 209

Ⅰ. International Approaches and Debates Today 210

A. Article 27(3) TRIPs 210

1. Negotiations: Past and Present 210

2. Definitions, Scope Extensions and Idiosyncrasies 212

B. TRIPs+ Provisions 216

C. The 'Ceilings' Debate 218

D. The Theory of Graduation 220

Ⅱ. International Approaches and Debates Tomorrow(?) 221

A. Normative Frameworks 224

1. The Theory of Multi-layered Governance 224

2. The Theory of Cooperative Sovereignty 225

3. The Theory of Regulatory Cosmopolitanism 226

B. Underlying Elements 227

1. Innovation 228

2. Economic Development 230

3. Equal Conditions to Trade: The Level Playing Field 232

4. Human Rights 234

5. Animal Welfare 238

6. The Conservation of AnGR 239

C. The Choice of Forum 240

D. The Practical Side 241

Ⅲ. Conclusion 242

Concluding Remarks 245

Glossary 251

Bibliography 255

Table of Cases 277

Table of Legislation 285

Index 293