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Introduction 1

1. The Development of International Environmental Law 2

2. The Concept of Sustainable Development 5

3. The Role of Compensation in International Environmental Law 7

4. Remarks about the Present Study 9

Chapter 1 Preliminary Observations about the Relation between Environment and Legal Rules 11

1. Introduction 11

2. Property Rights and the Environment 12

2.1. General Remarks 12

2.2. The Relation between Property and Environment 14

2.3. Environmental Protection and Liability Mechanisms Under National Law 16

2.4. The Intrinsic Value of the Environment 21

2.5. National Decisions Related to Environmental Damage 23

3. The Environment as a Public Domain 28

3.1. General Remarks 28

3.2. The Public Trust Doctrine 29

3.3. Public Regulations and Environmental Protection 31

3.4. Environmental Policies and Interference in Private Property 34

3.5. Interference in Private Property for Environmental Concerns：Overview of International Case Law 36

4. The Protection of the Environment through Human Rights 40

4.1. General Remarks 40

4.2. The Right to Life and the Right to a Private Life in Cases of Pollution 41

4.3. The Protection of Natural Resources Through the Rights of Indigenous People 45

5. Environment and Constitutional Law 49

6. Conclusions of the First Part 52

Chapter 2 Environmental Protection and International Law 55

1. Introduction 55

2. Environmental Damages and International Responsibility 58

2.1. General Remarks 58

2.2. Environmental Damages in International Law 59

2.3. Environmental Damages and Economic Losses Under International Responsibility 65

2.4. Why the Reimbursement of Direct and Indirect Costs Does Not Remedy Environmental Damages？ 69

3. Conclusion of the Second Part 75

Chapter 3 Overview of Compensation Standards in International Law 77

1. Introduction 77

2. International Jurisprudence 78

2.1. General Remarks 78

2.2. Early Arbitrations 79

2.3. The Permanent Court of International Justice 82

2.4. The International Court of Justice 84

2.5. Other International Courts 87

3. Liability Treaties 88

3.1. General Remarks 88

3.2. Pollution of the Sea 90

3.3. Nuclear Activities 92

3.4. Other Treaties 96

4. Resolutions， Documents and Reports from International Organizations 99

4.1. General Remarks 99

4.2. Institut du Droit International 100

4.3. International Law Commission 101

4.4. United Nations Environmental Programme 107

4.5. European Commission 110

5. Conclusion of the Third Part 114

Chapter 4 Elements of Fair Compensation in International Law 115

1. Introduction 115

2. Fairness and Satisfaction Among the Parties 117

2.1. General Remarks 117

2.2. Settlements by Lump Sum Agreements 118

2.3. Settlements by Ex Gratia Payments 122

3. Fairness as a Principle Governing the Establishment of Compensation 125

3.1. General Remarks 125

3.2. The Balance of Interests 126

3.3. References to Equity， Proportionality and Reasonableness 128

3.4. Equity and Inexistence of Applicable Law 130

4. Economics and Fair Compensation 132

4.1. General Remarks 132

4.2. Compensation as An Incentive for Environmental Protection 133

4.3. Compensation and ‘Efficient Liability’ 134

4.4. Difficulties on Presenting the Environment in Economic Theory 135

4.5. Economic Valuation of the Environment 138

4.6. The Contribution and the Limitations of Insurance in Relation to Environmental Risks 141

5. A Punitive Approach to Fair Compensation 145

5.1. General Remarks 145

5.2. Punitive Awards and International Responsibility 147

5.3. Punitive Awards and Environmental Claims 150

6. Conclusion of the Fourth Part 154

Chapter 5 Towards a Framework of Elements for the Compensation of Environmental Damages 157

1. Introduction 157

2. Consideration of the Instrumental Principles of International Environmental Law 159

2.1. General Remarks 159

2.2. The Principle of Prevention 160

2.3. The Polluter Pays Principle 162

2.4. The Precautionary Principle 166

3. Incorporating Scientific Elements in International Decisions 167

4. Respecting the Interests of the Third Parties 171

4.1. General Remarks 171

4.2. Commons： Areas of International Concern 173

4.3. Compliance with Multilateral Environmental Agreements 177

5. Evaluating the Conduct of the Parties 182

5.1. General Remarks 182

5.2. Contributory Fault and Environmental Damages 183

5.3. Aggravated Damages and Deterrence 185

6. Conclusion of the Fifth Part 187

Conclusions 189

Bibliography 191

Index 209