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INTRODUCTION Acknowledgments 1

Abbreviations 3

A Word to Constitutional Scholars 5

Preface 7

A Tavern in 1791 7

The Structure and Approach of this Book 9

Footnotes and Bibliography 10

Framers, Ratifiers, Federalists, Anti-Federalists, and Founders—the Words Defined 10

Evidence for the Original Constitution 11

CHAPTER Ⅰ History, Structure, and Preamble 13

The Background You Need to Understand the Constitution 13

The Common History 14

The Founders’ Core Political Values and Principles 18

1.Natural Rights: Liberty and Locke 19

2.Effective Government 21

3.Republican Government 21

4.Decentralized Government （Federalism） 22

5.Fiduciary Government—“Public Trust 23

The Constitution’s Legal Environment and Structure 25

The Preamble 27

CHAPTER 2 Interpreting the Constitution 29

The Founders’ Guide: The “Intent of the Makers” 29

Finding the “Intent of the Makers” from the Text 32

Finding “Intent of the Makers” from Surrounding Circumstances 35

Equitable construction 36

Common Errors of Interpretation 37

CHAPTER 3 The States 42

The States in the Constitutional System: Compact or Popular Grant? 42

State Powers 44

Aspects of State Sovereignty 46

State Immunity from Lawsuits and the Eleventh Amendment 47

Qualifications on state sovereignty—in general 49

Qualifications on state sovereignty: foreign and military affairs 49

Qualifications on state sovereignty: foreign commerce 51

Qualifications on state sovereignty: internal commerce 52

Qualifications on state sovereignty: promoting interstate comity 53

Qualifications on state sovereignty: The ban on bills of attainder 56

Qualifications on state sovereignty: The ban on ex post facto laws 57

Qualifications on state sovereignty: The ban on laws impairing the obligation of contracts 57

Qualifications on state sovereignty: The Supremacy Clause 58

CHAPTER 4 The House, the Senate, and the Vice President 61

Organization of Article I 61

The Two Houses of Congress Were Not Interchangeable 61

The House of Representatives 63

The Senate 69

The Vice President 74

CHAPTER 5 About the Grants of Powers to Congress 77

The Enumerated Powers 77

Limitations on Powers 78

Construing Congressional Powers 80

The Fiduciary Nature of Congressional Powers 80

The Necessary and Proper Clause（s） 82

CHAPTER 6 The Authority of Congress 87

Revenue-Raising 87

Borrowing and Spending 90

Congressional Powers Over the Economy:Commerce Across Political Lines, Bankruptcy,Post Office, Patents, Copyrights, and Money and Other Weights and Measures 95

Congressional Military Powers 103

Congressional Judicial, Criminal, and Immigration Powers 107

Congressional Powers over Federal Land—The Enclave Clause and the Territories and Property Clause 108

Congressional Powers to Promote Concord Among the States 112

Congressional Administrative Powers 113

1.A Limited Power Over Elections 113

2.Other administrative powers 116

CHAPTER 7 The Executive 119

Introduction 119

Executive Designation Clause or Executive Vesting Clause? 119

Term, Selection and Qualifications of the President and Vice President 123

The President’s Compensation and Oath 128

The Enumerated Powers of the President—in General 128

1.The Scheme of Enumeration 128

2.The President’s Incidental Powers 130

Presidential Powers Arguably Legislative or Judicial 130

1.The Veto 130

2.Other Quasi-Legislative and Quasi Judicial Authority 131

Domestic Executive Powers 132

1.Executing the laws 132

2.Appointing subordinate executive officers 132

3.Removal of executive officers 133

Military powers 134

Foreign Affairs and Treaties 135

1.Powers of the President over foreign affairs 135

2.Power of the President over international compacts and treaties 136

Limitations on the President 139

CHAPTER 8 The Judicial Branch 143

Judicial Powers 143

Judicial Review 148

Limitations on the Judicial Power 149

CHAPTER 9 The Bill of Rights and other External Limitations on Federal Powers 153

Introduction 153

“Good Government” Restrictions 156

1.Uniformity of indirect taxes 158

2.Apportionment of direct taxes 158

3.The oath to support the Constitution 161

4.Other “good government” restrictions 162

Restrictions on Federal Retroactivity: The Article Ⅰ,Section 9 Ex Post Facto and Attainder Clauses and the Fifth Amendment Takings and Due Process Clauses 163

1.The Problem of Retrooctivity 163

2.The Reasons for the Fifth Amendment Takings and Due Process Clauses 163

4.The Fifth Amendment Due Process Clause 167

Protecting “Property” in Slaves 170

The First Amendment Religion Clauses 171

The First Amendment Speech and Press Clauses 173

1.Freedom of the press 173

2.Freedom o f speech 177

The First Amendment Assembly and Petition Clauses 180

The Second and Third Amendments: Protecting Health,Hearth, and Home 182

Protections for the Accused—including Treason, Habeas Corpus, and the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth and Eighth Amendments 184

1.The Treason Clauses 184

2.The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus 185

3.Trial By Jury 187

4.Searches and Seizures 189

5.Due Process--cross-reference 189

6.Other pre-conviction safeguards 189

7.Post-Conviction Proceedings 191

The Seventh Amendment.Protecting the Common Law Jury 191

Application of the Bill of Rights to Military Personnel 192

1.American military personnel 192

2.Captured enemy personnel 195

What about unenumerated rights? 197

CHAPTER 10 The Ninth and Tenth Amendments 199

The Ninth Amendment 200

The Tenth Amendment 204

CHAPTER 11 Removal from Office 209

Removal Following Impeachment and Trial 209

Removal of Executive Office by the President 214

CHAPTER 12 Ratification and Amendment 217

Ratification 217

Amendment 218

CHAPTER 13 Conclusion 223

REFERENCE Bibliography 229

General Sources 229

Appendix 242

Index 258