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Introduction 1

1. Historical Background 4

2. Notions:Group Entities,Corporations and Universal Jurisdiction 7

PART Ⅰ THE ABSENCE OF JURISDICTION OF EXISTING INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNALS FOR THE PROSECUTION OF ACCUSED CORPORATIONS 21

Chapter 1:Initial Developments of Collective Criminal Liability and the Origins of International Criminal Law and Jurisprudence 23

1. The Military War Crimes Tribunals and Trials Involving Collective Entities after the Second World War 23

(a) The Signing of the London Charter by the Allied Countries 24

(ⅰ) The Criminal Organizations 24

(ⅱ) The Conspiracy Issue 29

(b) The Tokyo Tribunal,Groups and Conspiracy Charges 30

(c) Trials of the Major Industrialists of the Second World War 35

(ⅰ) Discussions of the Allied Countries on Corporate Criminal Liability 35

(A) Collective Modes of Liability under the Allied Control Council Law No.10 36

(B) Theories of the Prosecution 36

(C) The Caseload 39

(Ⅰ) The Cases of Bruno Tesch (Zyklon B) and the Roechling Company 39

(Ⅱ) The First United States' Military Court Collective Liability Proceedings:The Justice,Medical and Pohl Cases 40

(Ⅲ) The First United States' Military Courts' Industrialist Trial:The Flick Case 41

(Ⅳ) The United States' Military Court's Prosecution of I.G.Farben Representatives and Corporate Liability 43

(Ⅴ) The Anticipated Trial of the Krupp Concern 46

(Ⅵ) The Trial of Japanese Industrialist Washio Awochi 49

(Ⅶ) New Doctrines of Collective Liability:Common Design and Common Enterprise 49

Chapter 2: The Ad Hoc Tribunals Created by the Security Council of the United Nations in Response to the Conflicts of Rwanda and the Former Yugoslavia 51

1. State Liability Engaged through Actions of Collective Entities 51

(a) The Attribution of State Responsibility for the Acts of its Organs 52

(b) Corporations Engaging States' Liability 54

2. Individuals as Principals of Collective Crime:Creation of New Doctrines to Attribute Individual Responsibility under the United Nations Ad Hoc Tribunals 56

(a) The Imprecise Notion of Complicity and Joint Criminal Enterprise Included in the Ad Hoc Tribunals' Statutes 57

(b) Common Purpose Liability 63

(c) Criminal Responsibility of Military Commanders and Other Superiors 69

3. Foreign Participation in Collective Crimes in Rwanda or in the Former Yugoslavia 73

(a) Involvement of Foreign Private Contractors 74

(b) The Target:High-Ranking Corporate Officers 75

Chapter 3: The International Criminal Court 79

1. The Political Debate over the Jurisdiction Ratione Personae of the International Criminal Court 79

2. Modes of Attribution of Criminal Liability on Corporations for International Crimes under the Rome Statute 83

(a) A New Doctrine of Co-perpetration for Individual Responsibility under Article 25(3)(a) of the Rome Statute 83

(ⅰ) Direct Perpetration 84

(ⅱ) Perpetration by Means 84

(ⅲ) Co-perpetration 87

(b) Common Purpose Liability under Article 25(3)(d) of the Rome Statute 91

(c) Other Modes of Participation under the Rome Statute 91

(ⅰ) Orders,Solicits or Induces under Article 25(3)(b) of the Rome Statute 91

(ⅱ) Aiding and Abetting under Article 25(3)(c) of the Rome Statute 92

(ⅲ) Direct and Public Incitement to Genocide under Article 25(3)(e) of the Rome Statute 92

(ⅳ) Attempt under Article 25(3)(f) of the Rome 93

(d) Criminal Responsibility of Military Commanders and Other Superiors under Article 28 of the Rome Statute 94

3. Personal Liability of the Alter Ego of a Corporation:Issues of Jurisdiction and the Complementarity Principle 96

PART Ⅱ CANADIAN CORPORATIONS AS SUBJECTS OF LIABILITY FOR INTERNATIONAL CRIMES UNDER CANADIAN CRIMINAL LAW 99

Chapter 4: Notorious Examples of Alleged Criminal Activities and Potential Violations of International Criminal Law by Canadian Corporations 101

1. Illustrative Case Studies of Impunity of Corporations despite Publicized Allegations of Violations of International Criminal Law 101

(a) The Democratic Republic of the Congo 103

(b) Sierra Leone 111

(c) Colombia 113

(d) Sudan 117

Chapter 5: International Crimes in Canadian Criminal Law 123

1. The Core Crimes of the Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act 123

2. Inchoate Crimes of the Criminal Code and the Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act 124

(a) Conspiracy 125

(b) Counselling 126

(c) Advocating or Promoting Genocide 127

(d) Inciting or Promoting Hatred 128

(e) Complicity after the Fact 129

(f)Attempt 130

3. Torture 131

4. International Crimes are Mens Rea Crimes under Canadian Law 133

Chapter 6: Canadian Corporations as Subjects of Criminal Liability in Canada 135

1. Canadian Corporations as Perpetrators of International Crimes 136

(a) A Canadian Organization 136

(b) A Canadian Multinational Corporation 137

(c) Perpetrators under Paragraph 21(1)(a) of the Criminal Code 138

(ⅰ) The Direct Author 138

(ⅱ) Co-perpetrators 139

(ⅲ) The Innocent Agent 139

(d) Canadian Corporations as Accomplices in the Commission of International Crimes 140

(ⅰ) Complicity by Aiding and Abetting under Paragraphs 21(1)(b) and (c) of the Criminal Code 141

(A) The Meaning 141

(B) Examples 141

(ⅱ) Complicity by Conspiring under Subsection 21(2) of the Criminal Code 142

(ⅲ) Complicity by Counselling under Subsection 22(3) of the Criminal Code 143

(e) Canadian Corporations as Superiors Accountable for International Crimes 144

Chapter 7:The Doctrine of Corporate Criminal Liability in Canada 147

1. Historical Evolution of Corporate Criminal Liability in Canada 147

(a) Importation of the Identification Theory for Liability of Corporations for Mens Rea Crimes 149

(b) The Westray Mining Disaster of 1992 150

(c) Legislative Discussions on Corporate Criminal Liability in Canada 152

(ⅰ) Criticism of the Identification Doctrine 152

(ⅱ) Consideration of the Corporate Culture Approach 153

(ⅲ) The Rejection of the Vicarious Liability Doctrine 155

2. Adoption and Implementation of Bill C-45 (the Westray Bill) 157

Chapter 8: Sentencing a Canadian Corporation and an Alter Ego under Canadian Criminal Law 161

1. Fundamental Purposes and Principal Guidelines for Sentencing a Criminal Organization 161

2. A First Option:Fines 163

3. An Alternative Sentence:The Corporate Probation 164

(a) The Doctrinal Point of View 165

(b) The Effect of Adverse Publicity as a Probationary Order 165

4. Sanctioning the Alter Ego 167

Chapter 9: Jurisdiction of Canadian Criminal Courts for the Prosecution of Canadian Corporations' Alleged Overseas Commissions of International Crimes 169

1. Crimes with an Extraterritorial Dimension 170

(a) Crimes Committed in Canada and Overseas by a Corporation (the Nexus Theory) 170

(b) The Issue of Conspiracy:Subsections 465(3) and (4) of the Criminal Code 170

2. The Personality Principle under Section 8 of the Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act 171

(a) Active Personality Jurisdiction 171

(b) Passive Personal Jurisdiction 173

3. The Principle of Universality under Section 8 of the Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act 173

(a) The Presence of the Corporation in Canada 174

(b) The Jurisprudential Recognition of the Principle of Universality before the Enactment of Section 8 of the Crimes Against Humanity and War Crimes Act in the Finta and Mugesera Cases 179

4. Torture 181

Conclusion 183

Bibliography 191

Index 205