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CHAPTER 1 THE COMPARATIVE APPROACH 1

1.1 In General 1

1.2 Comparative Method 3

1.3 Legal Families 7

1.4 Economic Classification and the Tax Mix 10

1.5 Comparing the Study of Tax 12

CHAPTER 2 OVERVIEW 15

2.1 Convergence 15

2.2 Complexity 17

2.3 Legislative Process 20

2.4 Investment Incentives 21

2.5 Country Focus 23

2.5.1 In General 23

2.5.2 Commonwealth Family 25

2.5.3 American Family 28

2.5.4 French Family 29

2.5.5 Latin American Family 30

2.5.6 Transition And Post-Conflict Countries 33

2.5.7 Northern European Family 38

2.5.8 Southern European Family 39

2.5.9 Japanese/Korean Family 40

2.5.10 Miscellaneous 42

2.5.11 European Union 42

CHAPTER 3 TAX AND TAXES 45

3.1 What Is a Tax? 45

3.2 Direct vs.Indirect Taxes 54

3.3 The Panoply of Taxes 57

CHAPTER 4 THE LEGAL CONTEXT 60

4.1 Tax law as Part of the Legal System 60

4.2 Sources of Tax Law 62

4.3 Constitutional Law 64

4.3.1 In General 64

4.3.1.1 Overview 64

4.3.1.2 France 67

4.3.1.3 Germany 68

4.3.1.4 United States 68

4.3.2 Tax Must be Imposed by Law （Principle of Legality） 70

4.3.3 General Limits on Taxing Power 72

4.3.4 Explicit Limits on Types of Taxes 73

4.3.5 Federalism 73

4.3.6 Nonretroactivity 76

4.3.7 Equality 82

4.3.7.1 In General 82

4.3.7.2 Germany 82

4.3.7.3 France 88

4.3.7.4 United States 91

4.3.8 Treatment of Married Couples 92

4.3.9 Other Countries 94

4.4 European Tax Law 100

4.4.1 Tax Law of the European Union 100

4.4.2 The European Human Rights Convention 109

4.5 Treaties 111

4.5.1 Scope of Treaties 111

4.5.2 Domestic Legal Effect of Treaties 112

4.5.3 Interpretation of Treaties 115

4.5.3.1 In General 115

4.5.3.2 Judicial Approaches 116

4.5.3.3 The Vienna Convention 118

4.5.3.4 A Common Approach to Double Tax Treaties 119

4.5.4 Treaty Policy 120

4.6 Administrative Law 121

4.7 Private Law 125

4.8 Criminal Law 129

4.9 Religion and Religious Law 129

CHAPTER 5 INTERPRETATION OF TAX LAW AND ANTI-AVOIDANCE RULES 133

5.1 In General 133

5.2 Conflicting Maxims 136

5.3 Country Practice 137

5.4 Tax Avoidance: Introduction 150

5.5 Tax Avoidance and Evasion 154

5.6 Sham Transactions, Simulation, and Abuse of Law 157

5.7 General Anti-Avoidance Rules 160

5.7.1 United States 160

5.7.1.1 Introduction 160

5.7.1.2 Economic Substance Doctrine 163

5.7.1.3 Business Purpose Doctrine 169

5.7.1.4 Step Transaction Doctrine and Substance Over Form 169

5.7.2 United Kingdom 172

5.7.2.1 Duke of Westminster: Tax Avoidance Approved 172

5.7.2.2 Ramsay: The Tide Turns 174

5.7.2.3 Evolution of the Ramsay Doctrine 176

5.7.3 Other Common Law Countries 184

5.7.4 France 187

5.7.5 Germany 190

5.7.6 Other Civil Law Countries 195

5.8 Specific Anti-Avoidance Provisions 195

5.8.1 In General 195

5.8.2 United States 197

5.8.3 United Kingdom 198

5.8.4 Other Countries 201

5.9 Procedural Attacks on Tax Shelters 201

5.10 Accounting Standards 203

CHAPTER 6 TAX ADMINISTRATION AND PROCEDURE 206

6.1 Introduction 206

6.2 Basic Attitudes and Psychology 206

6.3 Organization of Tax Administration Laws 208

6.4 Return Filing 209

6.5 Withholding and Information Reporting 210

6.6 Advance Rulings 211

6.7 Audits 213

6.8 Litigation 215

6.9 Collection 220

6.10 Civil Penalties 221

6.11 Tax Crimes 223

6.12 Tax Amnesties 228

6.13 Tax Professionals 228

6.14 Ombudsman 229

CHAPTER 7 INCOME TAX 231

7.1 History and Organization 231

7.2 Concept of Income and Definitional Structure 233

7.2.1 In General 233

7.2.2 Concepts of Income 235

7.2.3 Definitions and Concepts of Income in Practice 240

7.3 Schedular Elements in Income Taxation 241

7.4 The Tax Unit 243

7.5 Rate Schedule 244

7.6 Personal Deductions 244

7.7 Employment Income 246

7.7.1 Definition of Employee 246

7.7.2 Definition of Employment Income 248

7.7.3 Fringe Benefits 249

7.7.4 Deduction for Employee Expenses 253

7.7.5 Withholding 254

7.8. Capital Income 255

7.8.1 Schedular Taxation of Capital Income 255

7.8.2 Taxation of Financial Instruments 256

7.8.3 Owner-Occupied Housing 258

7.8.4 Policy on Pensions and Savings 259

7.9 Capital Gains 260

7.9.1 Concept of Capital Gains 260

7.9.2 Taxation of Capital Gains 263

7.9.3 Realization Events 265

7.10 Forgiveness of Indebtedness 266

7.11 Business Income 266

7.11.1 In General 266

7.11.2 Accounting Methods—In General 267

7.11.3 Deductions for Business Expenses 274

7.11.3.1 In General 274

7.11.3.2 Depreciation 275

7.11.3.3 Interest 276

7.12 Taxation of Businesses Entities 277

7.12.1 Definition of Corporate Taxpayer 277

7.12.2 Rates 278

7.12.3 Partnerships 279

7.12.4 Corporate/Shareholder Taxation 281

7.12.5 Reorganizations 285

7.13 Trusts 285

7.14 International Aspects of Income Tax 287

7.14.1 In General 287

7.14.2 Residence of Individuals 288

7.14.3 Residence of Entities 290

7.14.4 General Approach to Taxation of Residents 291

7.14.5 Relief from Double Taxation 292

7.14.6 Taxation of Nonresidents 294

7.14.7 Antiavoidance Rules 295

7.15 Inflation Adjustment 299

7.16 Income Averaging 301

7.17 Presumptive Methods 302

Chapter 8 VALUE ADDED TAX 305

8.1 In General 305

8.2 VAT Basics 307

8.3 Similarity of VAT Laws 312

8.4 Scope of Tax 315

8.4.1 Taxable Activity 315

8.4.2 Goods and Services 317

8.4.3 Definition of Taxable Services 317

8.4.4 Supplies by Government Agencies and Nonprofits 317

8.4.5 Immovable Property 318

8.4.6 International Transactions 318

8.5 Exemptions 320

8.6 Rate Structure 322

8.7 Administration 322

8.8 Special Issues 322

8.8.1 Financial Services and Insurance 322

8.8.2 Small Businesses 324

8.8.3 Agriculture 325

8.8.4 Cash vs.Accrual Method 326

8.8.5 Denial of Input Credit for Nonbusiness Uses 326

8.8.6 Refunds 326

8.8.7 InterjurisdictionalIssues 327

CHAPTER 9 OTHER TAXES 328

9.1 Excises 328

9.2 Wealth Taxes 329

9.2.1 Net Wealth Taxes 329

9.2.2 Death Duties and Gift Tax 330

9.3 Property Taxes 330

9.4 Social Security Taxes 332

9.5 Stamp and Financial Transactions Taxes 332

9.6 Customs Duties 335

9.7 Taxes on Mineral Extraction 337

9.8 Miscellaneous Taxes 338

Appendix 1 RESEARCH TOOLS FOR COMPARATIVE TAX LAW 339

Appendix 2 GENERAL ANTI-AVOIDANCE RULES 344

Australia 344

Belgium 346

Canada 347

Hong Kong 348

Ireland 348

Malaysia 349

New Zealand 349

Singapore 351

South Africa 352

Spain 352

Appendix 3 BIBLIOGRAPHY 353

Index 359