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Chapter 1 Effects of Low Temperatures on Living Cells and Tissues＆BY AUDREY U．SMITH 1

Ⅰ．Introduction 1

Ⅱ．Thermal Shock 6

Ⅲ．Removal of Water 11

Ⅳ．Temperature Gradients 17

Ⅴ．Extra- and Intracellular Changes:Crystallization and Vitrification 22

Ⅵ．The Action of Glycerol and Related Substances 31

Ⅶ．Duration of Survival at Low Temperatures:Metabolic and Physical Factors 42

Ⅷ．Effects of Cold on the Whole Animal 45

Ⅸ．Practical Applications 48

References 50

Chapter 2 The Development of Freeze-Drying＆BY E．W．FLOSDORF 63

Ⅰ．General Considerations 63

Ⅱ．Equipment Developments 66

Ⅲ．Application Developments 70

References 83

Chapter 3 Theoretical Aspects of Drying by Vacuum Sublimation＆BY R．I．N．GREAVES 87

Ⅰ．Introduction 87

Ⅱ．Freezing 90

Ⅲ．Primary Drying 100

Ⅳ．Secondary Drying and Packaging 123

Ⅴ．Some Difficulties 125

References 126

Chapter 4 The Preservation of Blood Plasma and Blood Products by Freezing and Drying＆BY MAX M．STRUMIA 129

Ⅰ．General Considerations 129

Ⅱ．Preparation of Plasma 131

Ⅲ．Freezing of Plasma 134

Ⅳ．Drying of Plasma from the Frozen State 137

Ⅴ．Conditions and Details of Design Related to Removal of Water 137

Ⅵ．An Apparatus for Freeze-Drying Plasma 142

Ⅶ．Stability of Plasma in the Dry State 147

Ⅷ．Freeze-Drying of Other Blood Products 147

References 148

Chapter 5 The Freeze-Drying of Antibiotics＆BY J．H．SINGER 151

Ⅰ．Introduction 151

Ⅱ．Drying in Individual Containers 152

Ⅲ．Equipment for Large-Scale Drying of Penicillin in Individual Containers 155

Ⅳ．Bulk Drying 169

References 175

Chapter 6 The Freeze-Drying of Mother＇s Milk＆BY G．G．A．MASTENBROEK 177

Ⅰ．Introduction 177

Ⅱ．Collection of the Milk 178

Ⅲ．The Drying Plant 179

Ⅳ．Properties and Advantages of Dried Milk 181

Ⅴ．Conclusions 182

References 183

Chapter 7 The Freeze-Drying of Foodstuffs＆BY R．GANE 185

Ⅰ．Introduction 185

Ⅱ．Freeze-Drying Equipment 188

Ⅲ．General Conclusions 190

References 190

Chapter 8 The Preservation of Media for the Culture of Bacteria and Tissues＆BY DUNCAN C．HETHERINGTON 193

Ⅰ．Introduction 193

Ⅱ．Frozen-Dried Tissue Culture Media 194

Ⅲ．Commercial Production of Media 195

References 199

Chapter 9 The Preservation of Viruses＆BY R．J．C．HARRIS 201

Ⅰ．Introduction 201

Ⅱ．Optimum Suspending Media for Viruses 202

Ⅲ．Stability of Viruses to Freezing 203

Ⅳ．Drying Frozen Virus Suspensions by Vacuum Sublimation 204

Ⅴ．Storage of Dried Virus Preparation 209

Ⅵ．General Considerations 210

References 211

Chapter 10 The Preservation of Bacteria＆BY R．M．FRY 215

Ⅰ．Introduction 215

Ⅱ．Estimation of Survival 216

Ⅲ．Technique of Drying Bacteria 217

Ⅳ．Factors Influencing Survival 231

Ⅴ．The Death of Dried Bacteria 247

Ⅵ．Further Work 249

References 250

Chapter 11 The Preservation of Tissues＆BY R．E．BILLINGHAM 253

Ⅰ．Introduction 253

Ⅱ．Studies on Preserved Nerve Grafts 255

Ⅲ．A Method of Effecting Nerve Reunion with Frozen-Dried Artery Segments 258

Ⅳ．The Preservation of Corneal Tissue 259

Ⅴ．The Preservation of Blood Vessel Grafts 262

Ⅵ．Studies on Frozen and on Frozen-Dried Tumor Tissues 264

Ⅶ．Studies on the Freezing,Freeze-Drying,and Storage of Mammalian Skin 270

Ⅷ．The Possible Application of Frozen-Dried Tissues in the Investigation of Problems of Morphogenesis 277

Ⅸ．Conclusions 278

References 280

Chapter 12 The Effects of Residual Moisture in Frozen-Dried Materials,and Its Measurement＆BY L．G．BECKETT 285

Ⅰ．Introduction 285

Ⅱ．Effects of Residual Moisture on Non-Viable Materials 286

Ⅲ．Effects of Residual Moisture on Frozen-Dried Viruses and Bacteria 287

Ⅳ．Methods of Moisture Determination 289

Ⅴ．Conclusion 300

References 300

Chapter 13．The Application of Freeze-Drying to Electron Microscopy＆BY ROBLEY C．WILLIAMS 303

Ⅰ．Introduction:General Remarks 303

Ⅱ．Freeze-Drying for Electron Microscopy:General Considerations 307

Ⅲ．Earlier Methods of Freeze-Drying Electron Microscope Specimens 308

Ⅳ．Description of a New Freeze-Drying Method 309

Ⅴ．Critical Examination of Earlier Freeze-Drying Methods 312

Ⅵ．Evaluation of the New Freeze-Drying Method 313

Ⅶ．Difficulties in the Electron Microscopy of Frozen-Dried Materials 316

Ⅷ．Examples of Electron Micrographs of Frozen-Dried Specimens 318

Ⅸ．Summary 326

References 327

Chapter 14 Freezing and Drying of Tissues for Morphological and Histochemical Studies＆BY ISIDORE GERSH AND JOHN L．STEPHENSON 329

Ⅰ．Introduction 330

Ⅱ．Theory of Freezing 333

Ⅲ．Tissue Observations 335

Ⅳ．Description of the Drying Process 338

Ⅴ．Factors Controlling the Rate of Drying 341

Ⅵ．Quantitative Relations of the Factors Controlling the Rate of Drying 345

Ⅶ．Efficiency of Drying Apparatus 348

Ⅷ．Design of Drying Apparatus 350

Ⅸ．Preparation of Dried Tissue for Sectioning 360

Ⅹ．Morphology and Histochemistry of Frozen-Dried Tissues 361

References 380

AUTHOR INDEX 385

SUBJECT INDEX 395