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Chapter One Introduction 1

1.1 Function Word 1

1.2 Background to the Study 2

1.3 The Objectives of the Current Study 4

1.4 General Organization 5

Chapter Two Literature Review 7

2.1 Introduction 7

2.2 A Chronological Review 7

2.2.1 The Meroi Logou—Parts of Speech Tradition 8

2.2.1.1 Plato 8

2.2.1.2 Aristotle 8

2.2.2 The Inflection Criteria 9

2.2.2.1 The Stoic School 9

2.2.2.2 Thrax 9

2.2.2.3 Varro 10

2.2.3 The Semantic Criterion 11

2.2.3.1 Priscian 11

2.2.3.2 Wilkins 12

2.2.4 The Establishment of English Word Class System 13

2.2.5 Function Word Systems 15

2.2.5.1 Fries 15

2.2.5.2 Christopherson and Sandaved 18

2.2.5.3 Bolinger 19

2.2.5.4 Biber et al 20

2.3 Review of the Classification of Function Words 24

2.3.1 Problems 24

2.3.2 The Domain of Function Words 26

2.3.3 The Features of Function Words 26

2.3.3.1 Phonological Features 27

2.3.3.2 Morphological and Lexical Features 28

2.3.3.3 Syntactical Features 29

2.3.3.4 Semantic Features 30

2.3.3.5 Functional Features 31

2.4 Function Words in a Functional Linguistic System 32

2.4.1 Within Nominal Group 33

2.4.1.1 Deictics 33

2.4.1.2 Numeratives 35

2.4.1.3 Thing 36

2.4.2 Within Verbal Groups 38

2.4.3 Within Adverbial Groups 38

2.5 Function Word Classes—A Systemic Functional Perspective 40

2.5.1 Determiners 40

2.5.2 Pronouns 41

2.5.3 Numerals 41

2.5.4 Primary Verbs 42

2.5.5 Modal Verbs 43

2.5.6 Prepositions 43

2.5.6.1 Free Prepositions 43

2.5.6.2 Bound Prepositions 43

2.5.6.3 Complex Prepositions 43

2.5.7 Conjunctions 44

2.5.7.1 Linkers 44

2.5.7.2 Binders 44

2.5.8 Discourse Words 45

2.5.9 Interjections 46

2.6 Summary 49

Chapter Three A Multifunctional Approach to Function Words 50

3.1 Introduction 50

3.2 Ideational Function 51

3.2.1 Ideational Meanings on Clause Level 51

3.2.2 Ideational Meanings below Clause 52

3.2.2.1 Reference and Deixis 54

3.2.2.2 The Strata of Reference 57

3.2.3 Referential Functions—The Core of Ideational Functions 60

3.3 Textual Function vs.Discourse Function 63

3.3.1 Halliday's Textual Function 63

3.3.2 Discourse Function 66

3.3.2.1 Cohesive Ties 66

3.3.2.2 Static Cohesion 68

3.3.2.3 Dynamic Cohesion—Conjunction 72

3.4 Interpersonal Function 75

3.4.1 Interpersonal Function on Clause Level 75

3.4.2 Interpersonal Function Below and Beyond Clause 77

3.5 Pragmatic Function—An Extension of Interpersonal Functions beyond Clause 78

3.5.1 Pragmatic Function—A Step Further into Interpersonal Functions 79

3.5.2 Commodity and Implicature 79

3.5.3 Speech Act Instead of Speech Function 83

3.6 Generic Function 86

3.6.1 Genre Defined 86

3.6.2 Words as Realization of Generic Features 87

3.7 Summary 89

Chapter Four Discourse Functions of Function Words 91

4.1 Introduction 91

4 2 Function Words as Phoric Items 92

4.2.1 Phoric Items,Referring Expressions and Presuming Reference Items 92

4.2.2 The Phoricity System 94

4.3 Reminding Phoricity 95

4.3.1 Exophoric Phoricity 95

4.3.2 Endophoric Phoricity 97

4.3.2.1 Anaphora 97

4.3.2.2 Textual Phora 99

4.3.2.3 Cataphora 99

4.3.2.3.1 Esphora 100

4.3.2.3.2 Cataphora 101

4.3.3 Reminding Phoric Items Forming Reference Chains 102

4.3.4 The as a Four-fold Phoric Item 106

4.3.5 When We and You Referring to More than One 110

4.3.6 Relativizers Introducing Esphoric Reference 111

4.3.7 Factors Affecting Anaphoric Choices 112

4.4 Relevant Phoricity 115

4.5 Redundancy Phoricity 116

4.6 Summary 117

Chapter Five Pragmatic Functions of Function Words 118

5.1 Introduction 118

5.2 Linguistic Acts 119

5.2.1 Discourse Words as Pragmatic Markers 123

5.2.1.1 Discourse Words Defined 123

5.2.1.2 Pragmatic Markers 124

5.2.1.3 The Range of Pragmatic Markers 126

5.2.2 The Pragmatic Functions of Pragmatic Markers 127

5.2.2.1 And in Interactional Discourse 127

5.2.2.1.1 As Discourse Coordinator 127

5.2.2.1.2 As Devices of Interactional Continuation 130

5.2.2.2 Well as an Interactional Device 135

5.2.2.2.1 As a Response Marker 135

5.2.2.2.2 As Shift of Topic or Pre-closing Device 141

5.3 Linguistic Force—Realization of Intentionality 143

5.3.1 Pronouns as Referential Force 145

5.3.2 The Referential Power of We 148

5.3.2.1 The Properties of We 148

5.3.2.2 We Representing More than One 149

5.3.2.3 We Used as I 152

5.3.2.3.1 Evasion/Share of Responsibility 152

5.3.2.3.2 Invitation of Participation 153

5.3.3 Referring as Realization of Distancing 155

5.3.3.1 Exclusive We as Distancing Device 155

5.3.3.2 He as Means of Distance 156

5.3.5.3 He as Device of Condemnation 157

5.4 Summary 160

Chapter Six Ideational Functions of Function Words 162

6.1 Introduction 162

6.2 Participants 163

6.2.1 Indefinite Participants 164

6.2.1.1 Total Participants:All,Each,Every,No,Any 166

6.2.1.2 Partial Participants 169

6.2.2 Definite Participants 172

6.2.2.1 Participants Modified by Demonstratives 172

6.2.2.2 Participants Headed by Possessive Deictics 177

6.2.3 Participants Realized by Pronouns and Other Referring Items 178

6.2.3.1 Personal Participants 178

6.2.3.2 Demonstrative Participants 180

6.3 Circumstances 181

6.3.1 Extent and Location 182

6.3.1.1 Extent:Distance and Duration 183

6.3.1.2 Location:Place and Time 184

6.3.2 Manner 186

6.3.3 Cause 188

6.3.4 Contingency 189

6.3.5 Accompaniment 190

6.3.6 Role 191

6.3.7 Matter 192

6.3.8 Angle 193

6.4 Summary 194

Chapter Seven Interpersonal Functions of Function Words 196

7.1 Introduction 196

7.2 Interjections 197

7.3 The Exclamative Mood 202

7.3.1 Exclamatives of Surprise 204

7.3.2 Exclamatives of Excitement 206

7.3.3 Exclamatives of Satisfaction 207

7.3.4 Exclamatives of Anger and Disgust 208

7.4 Interjections as Realizations of Interpersonal Relationships 211

7.4.1 Static Relationships 211

7.4.1.1 Interjections and Power 212

7.4.1.2 Interjections and Affect 218

7.4.2 Dynamic Relations 221

7.4.2.1 Presence and Absence of Interjection 222

7.4.2.2 Interjections as Communicative Strategies 225

7.5 Interjections as Stance Markers 227

7.5.1 Stance Markers 227

7.5.2 As Direct Devices 229

7.5.3 As Indirect Stance Markers 231

7.6 Summary 232

Chapter Eight Generic Functions of Function Words 235

8.1 Introduction 235

8.2 Genres under Study 236

8.2.1 Genre 236

8.2.2 Generic Components and Their Realizations 237

8.2.3 Genres in this Study 242

8.2.4 Text Selection 244

8.3 Participation Involvement and Referring Expressions 244

8.3.1 Participants Inside and Outside the Text 245

8.3.2 Research Method 248

8.3.3 Referring Expression Variations among the Four Genres 250

8.3.3.1 Referring Expression Variations 250

8.3.3.2 Difference Among Texts of the Four Genres 253

8.4 Function Word Variations among the Four Genres 258

8.4.1 Function Words as Linguistic Features 258

8.4.2 Function Word Variations Defined 259

8.4.2.1 Function Word Variations and the Formality of Genres 260

8.4.2.2 Function Word Variations and In formation Packaging 262

8.4.3 Function Word Variations among the Four Genres 266

8.5 Summary 270

Chapter Nine Grammaticalization vs Lexicalization 272

9.1 Introduction 272

9.2 Grammaticalization 273

9.2.1 The Origin of Function Words 274

9.2.2 Prepositions of Verbal Origins 276

9.2.2.1 The Co-occurrence of Verbal and Prepositional Uses 277

9.2.2.2 A Semantic Shift 278

9.2.3 Prepositions of Nominal Origins 280

9.2.3.1 Complex Prepositions 280

9.2.3.2 Complex Prepositions as Grammatical Forms 281

9.2.3.3 The Noun Root of On Top Of 282

9.2.3.4 Functional Derivatives 284

9.2.4 Multifunctionality vs Grammaticalization 285

9.2.4.1 Extension of Semantic Functions—From Referential to Relational 286

9.2.4.2 Decategorialization—Grammaticalization 288

9.3 Lexicalization 292

9.3.1 Lexicalization vs Degrammaticalization 292

9.3.2 Multifunctionality—The Mechanism of Lexicalization 294

9.3.2.1 Overlap Being the First Step of Lexicalization 294

9.3.2.2 A Return to the Native or A New Birth? 296

9.4 The Relativity of the Closcness of Function Word System 299

9.5 Summary 300

Chapter Ten Conclusion 301

10.1 The Semantics of Function Words 301

10.2 The Multifunctional Approach 301

10.3 Main Contributions of the Thesis 304

10.4 Theoretical and Educational Implications 306

10.5 Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research 308

Appendix 310

Bibliography 319