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Chapter 1　Introduction 1

1.1 Research orientation 1

1.2　Definition of the terms 2

1.3　Rationale of the study 5

1.4　Research questions 11

1.5　Organization of the thesis 13

Notes to Chapter 1 15

Chapter 2　Theoretical Models of Language Production 16

2.1　The L1 production model and its application 17

2.1.1　Levelt's speech production model 18

2.1.2 Issues in adopting Levelt's model for bilingual speech production 23

2.2　L1 writing process models 25

2.2.1 Flower ＆ Hayes's cognitive model of writing 26

2.2.2 The two-process model 29

2.2.3 Kellogg's working memory model of writing 33

2.3 L2 writing models and the relevant research 37

2.3.1 Zimmermann's formulating model of L2 writing 38

2.3.2 L2 writing research and writing performance 41

2.4 Summary 42

Notes to Chapter 2 47

Chapter 3 Language Tasks and Task Related Performance 48

3.1 Language tasks and task effect 49

3.1.1 Theoretical perspectives of task research 49

3.1.2 Task complexity 51

3.1.3 Tasks and general linguistic performance 53

3.1.4 Task types 55

3.1.5 Task types and performance tendency 57

3.2 Effect of task conditions 60

3.2.1 Theoretical aspect of time conditions in language production 60

3.2.2 Effect of time and planning on oral production 62

3.2.3 Effect of time and planning on L2 writing 67

3.2.4 Issues of planning and planning time 70

3.3 Other affecting variables in language production 73

3.3.1 Effect of proficiency 73

3.3.2 Use of strategies 75

3.4 Summary 76

Notes to Chapter 3 80

Chapter 4 Measuring Linguistic Performance 82

4.1 Fluency 83

4.2 Accuracy 85

4.3 Complexity 88

4.3.1 Syntactic complexity 89

4.3.2 Lexical complexity 91

4.4 Summary 92

Notes to Chapter 4 93

Chapter 5 Theoretical Framework and Task Analysis 94

5.1 Overall structure of the framework 94

5.2 Composing components 99

5.2.1 The sub-processors of L2 production 99

5.2.2 The working memory 101

5.2.3 Monitoring 102

5.3 Task component 103

5.3.1 Accommodation of task component 104

5.3.2 Cognitive complexity of writing tasks 106

5.3.3 Linguistic demand of writing tasks 109

5.3.4 Task conditions 111

5.4 Writing requirements and writing performance 112

5.4.1 Linguistic complexity 112

5.4.2 Linguistic accuracy 113

5.4.3 Linguistic fluency 115

5.5 Task analyses 116

5.5.1 Why those four writing tasks? 117

5.5.2 Topic writing 118

5.5.3 Picture writing 119

5.5.4 Graph writing 121

5.5.5 Summary writing 122

5.5.6 A tentative ranking of the four writing tasks 123

5.6 Summary and hypotheses 125

Notes to Chapter 5 130

Chapter 6 Method 132

6.1 Design 132

6.2 Participants 133

6.3 Instruments 135

6.4 Procedures 137

6.5 Data analyses 139

6.5.1 Accuracy 140

6.5.2 Syntactic complexity 141

6.5.3 Lexical variation 142

6.5.4 Fluency 143

6.5.5 Statistical analysis 143

6.5.6 Qualitative analysis 144

6.6 Summary 145

Notes to Chapter 6 145

Chapter 7 Results and Analyses 148

7.1 Quantitative results 149

7.1.1 General effects 149

7.1.2 Accuracy 150

7.1.3 Syntactic complexity 154

7.1.4 Lexical variation 157

7.1.5 Fluency 160

7.2 Time effect 163

7.3 Effect of proficiency 166

7.4 Qualitative results of task performance 169

7.4.1 TW 169

7.4.2 PW 171

7.4.3 GW 172

7.4.4 SW 175

7.5 Inter-rating and intra-rating analyses 178

7.5.1 Inter-rating analysis 179

7.5.2 Intra-rating analysis 181

7.6 Summary 182

Notes to Chapter 7 183

Chapter 8 Discussion 186

8.1 Major findings 186

8.2 Task performance and measurements 188

8.2.1 Linguistic accuracy 189

8.2.2 Syntactic complexity 191

8.2.3 Lexical variation 193

8.2.4 Linguistic fluency 195

8.3 Writing tasks revisited 198

8.3.1 TW 198

8.3.2 PW 202

8.3.3 GW 204

8.3.4 SW 206

8.4 Theoretical framework revisited 208

8.4.1 Major components of L2 writing process 208

8.4.2 Conceptual demand vs.linguistic demand 211

8.4.3 Linear or recursive 213

8.4.4 Time effect and working memory 216

8.4.5 Use of strategies 218

8.5 Summary 220

Notes to Chapter 8 222

Chapter 9 Conclusions and Implications 224

9.1 Summary of the study 224

9.2 Pedagogical implications 227

9.3 Limitations and future studies 230

References 233

Appendices 254

List of Figures 20

Figure 1 Levelt's speech production model(Levelt 1989:9) 20

Figure 2 Flower ＆ Hayes's process model of composing(From Hayes et al 1987:186) 28

Figure 3 Kellogg's model of working memory to writing(Kellogg 1996:59) 34

Figure 4 Zimmermann's formulating model of L2 writing(Zimmermann 1997:63) 40

Figure 5 A tentative structure of L2 writing process 97

List of Tables 149

Table 1 Summary of effect of all factors(SPSS) 149

Table 2 Task effect on accuracy 150

Table 3 Post hoc test on the accuracy measure:EFS/S(SPSS) 152

Table 4 Post hoc test on the accuracy measure:E/T 152

Table 5 Post hoc test on the accuracy measure:E/W 153

Table 6 Task effect on syntactic complexity 154

Table 7 Post hoc test on the syntactic complexity measure:S/T 155

Table 8 Post hoc test on the syntactic complexity measure:W/T 155

Table 9 Task effect on lexical variation 157

Table 10 Post hoc test on the lexical variation measure:t/t 158

Table 11 Post hoc test on the lexical variation measure:t/？ 158

Table 12 Task effect on fluency 161

Table 13 Post hoc test on the fluency measure:length 162

Table 14 Post hoc test on the fluency measure:R/W 162

Table 15 Time effect on the nine dependent variables(t-test) 164

Table 16 Effect of proficiency on the nine dependent variables(t-test) 167

List of appendices 254

Appendix Ⅰ Writing instruments 254

Appendix Ⅱ A coding sample 258

Appendix Ⅲ 2-way interaction charts(time by proficiency) 259

Appendix Ⅳ Time effect on individual tasks(t-test) 264

Appendix Ⅴ Effect of proficiency on TW(t-test) 266