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Part Ⅰ Speech and Language 3

1 Communication 3

1．1 Speech 3

1．2 Writing 3

1．3 Language 4

1．4 Redundancy 5

1．5 Phonetics and Linguistics 5

2 The Production of Speech 8

2．1 The Speech Chain 8

2．2 The Speech Mechanism 8

2．2．1 Sources of Energy: The Lungs 9

2．2．2 The Larynx and Vocal Folds 9

2．2．3 The Resonatihg Cavities 12

2．2．3．1 The Pharynx 12

2．2．3．2 The Mouth 14

2．3 Articulatory Description 17

3 The Sounds of Speech 18

3．1 Sound Quality 18

3．2 The Acoustic Spectrum 20

3．2．1 Fundamental Frequency: Pitch 22

3．2．2 Intensity: Loudness 23

3．2．3 Duration: Length 24

3．2．4 Stress 24

3．3 Hearing 25

4 The Description and Classification of Speech Sounds 26

4．1 Phonetic Description 26

4．2 Vowel and Consonant 26

4．3 Consonants 27

4．3．1 Egressive Pulmonic Consonants 28

4．3．2 Voicing 28

4．3．3 Place of Articulation 28

4．3．4 Manner of Articulation 29

4．3．5 Obstruents and Sonorants 30

4．3．6 Fortis and Lenis 30

4．3．7 Classification of Consonants 32

4．3．8 Ingressive Pulmonic Consonants 32

4．3．9 Egressive Glottalic Consonants 32

4．3．10 Ingressive Glottalic Consonants 32

4．3．11 Ingressive Velaric Consonants 33

4．4 Vowels 33

4．4．1 Difficulties of Description 34

4．4．2 Cardinal Vowels 35

4．4．3 Nasality 37

4．4．4 Relatively Pure Vowels vs Gliding Vowels 37

4．4．5 Articulatory Classification of Vowels 38

5 Sounds in Language 40

5．1 Speech Sounds and Linguistic Units 40

5．2 The Linguistic Hierarchy 41

5．3 Phonemes 42

5．3．1 Diversity of Phonemic Solutions 43

5．3．2 Distinctive Features 43

5．3．3 Allophones 44

5．3．4 Neutralization 46

5．3．5 Phonemic Systems 46

5．4 Transcription 48

5．5 Syllables 49

5．5．1 The Sonority Hierarchy 49

5．5．2 Syllable Constituency 50

5．5．3 Syllable Boundaries 51

5．6 Vowel and Consonant 52

5．7 Prosodic Features 53

5．8 Paralinguistic and Extralinguistic Features 53

Part Ⅱ The Sounds of English 57

6 The Historical Background 57

6．1 Phonetic Studies in Britain 57

6．1．1 Palsgrave and Salesbury 57

6．1．2 Spelling Reformers: Smith, Hart, Gil 58

6．1．3 Phoneticians: Wallis, Wilkins, Cooper 59

6．1．4 Eighteenth Century: Johnson, Sheridan, Walker, Steele 61

6．1．5 Nineteenth Century: Pitman, Ellis, Bell, Sweet 62

6．2 Sound Change 63

6．2．1 Types of Change 64

6．2．2 Rate and Route of Vowel Change 66

6．2．3 Sound Change and the Linguistic System 67

6．2．4 Sources of Evidence for Reconstruction 68

6．2．5 Classical Old English Sound System 73

6．2．6 Middle English Sound System 73

6．2．7 Early Modern English Sound System 74

6．2．8 Present English Sound System 75

6．2．9 Modifications in the English Sound System 75

7 Standard and Regional Accents 77

7．1 Standards of Pronunciation 77

7．2 The Emergence of a Standard 77

7．3 The Present-day Situation: RP 78

7．4 Current Changes within RP 81

7．4．1 Changes Almost Complete 82

7．4．2 Changes Well-established 82

7．4．3 Recent Innovations 83

7．4．4 Innovations on the Verge of RP 83

7．5 Comparing Systems of Pronunciation 84

7．6 Systems and Standards Other than RP 84

7．6．1 General American 85

7．6．2 Standard Scottish English(SSE) 86

7．6．3 London English 87

7．6．4 Northern English 89

7．6．5 Australian English 90

8 The English Vowels 91

8．1 The Distinctive Vowels 91

8．2 Vowel Glides with a Non-prominent First Element 93

8．3 Glides to 〔(〕 94

8．4 Vowel Length 94

8．4．1 Phonetic Relationships 94

8．4．2 Morphophonemic Alternations 96

8．5 Transcriptions of English Vowels 97

8．6 Acoustics of RP Vowels 99

8．7 Learning of Vowels 103

8．7．1 Acquisition of Vowels by Native Learners 103

8．7．2 Advice to Foreign Learners 103

8．8 Descriptions of the Vowels 104

8．9 (Relatively) Pure Vowels 104

8．9．1 /i:/ 104

8．9．3 /е/ 109

8．9．4 / ?/ 110

8．9．5 /Λ/ 112

8．9．7 / D:/ 117

8．9．8 / ?:/ 118

8．9．9 /υ/ 121

8．9．10 /U:/ 122

8．9．11 /3:/ 124

8．9．12 /?/ 126

8．10 Diphthongal Vowel Gildes 129

8．10．1 /eI/ 129

8．10．2 /aI/ 131

8．10．3 /?I/ 133

8．10．4 /?U/ 134

8．10．5 /aU/ 136

8．11 Diphthongs+〔(〕 138

8．12 Centring Diphthongs/I?, e?,u?/ 141

8．12．1 /I?/ 141

8．12．2 /e?/ 144

8．12．3 /U?/ 145

8．13 Vowels in Syllables Without Primary Accent 146

8．14 Frequency of Occurrence of RP Vowels 148

9 The English Consonants 149

9．1 The Distinctive Consonants 149

Class A: Obstruents 150

9．2 Plosives 150

9．2．1 The Phonetic Features of English Plosives 151

9．2．2 Acoustic Features of English Plosives 154

9．2．3 Acquisition of Plosives by Native Learners 156

9．2．4 The Release Stage of English Plosives 157

9．2．5 Bilabial Plosives 160

9．2．6 Alveolar Plosives 162

9．2．7 Velar Plosives 165

9．2．8 Glottal Plosive 168

9．3 Affricaes 171

9．3．1 Palato-alveolar Affricates 174

9．4 Fricatives 177

9．4．1 Acoustic Features of English Fricatives 179

9．4．2 Acquisition of Fricatives by Native Learners 180

9．4．3 Labiodental Fricatives 181

9．4．4 Dental Fricatives 183

9．4．5 Alveolar Fricatives 185

9．4．6 Palato-alveolar Fricatives 188

9．4．7 Glottal Fricative 191

9．5 Voiced and Voiceless as Phonological Categories 193

Call B: Sonorants 193

9．6 Nasals 193

9．6．1 Bilabial Nasal 195

9．6．2 Alveolar Nasal 196

9．6．3 Velar Nasal 198

9．7 Oral Approximants 200

9．7．1 Lateral Approximant 200

9．7．2 Post-alveolar Approximant 205

9．7．3 Palatal and Labial-velar Approximants (or Semi-vowels 210

9．7．4 Unrounded Palatal Approximant 211

9．7．5 Labial-velar Approximant 213

9．8 Frequency of Occurrence of RP Consonants 216

Part Ⅲ Words and Connected Speech 221

10 Words 221

10．1 Accent 222

10．2 Accent and Prominence 222

10．3 Word Accentual Patterns 224

10．3．1 Roots 224

10．3．2 Suffixes 226

10．3．3 Prefixes 228

10．3．4 Secondary Accent 228

10．3．5 Compounds 228

10．4 Word Accentual Instability 231

10．5 Distinctive Word Accentual Patterns 233

10．6 Acquisition of Word Accent by Native Learners 235

10．7 Advice to Foreign Learners 235

10．8 Elision and Epenthesis 235

10．9 Variability in the Phonemic Structure of Words 238

10．10 Phonotactics 239

10．10．1 Word-initial and Word-final Phoneme Sequences 240

10．10．2 Word-medial Syllable Division 244

10．10．3 Inflexional Suffix Formation 245

10．10．4 Acquisition of Phonotactics by Native Learners 247

10．10．5 Advice to Foreign Learners 247

10．11 Consonant Harmony in the Word Structure of Native Learners 247

11 Connected Speech 249

11．1 Accent 249

11．2 Prominence, Accent, and Rhythm 250

11．3 Weak Forms 252

11．4 Acquisition of Rhythm and Weak Forms by Native Learners 254

11．5 Advice to Foreign Learners 255

11．6 Intonation 255

11．6．1 The Forms of Intonation 256

11．6．1．1 Intonational Phrases 256

11．6．1．2 Primary Accents 256

11．6．1．3 Types of Nuclear Tone 257

11．6．1．4 Secondary Accents 261

11．6．1．5 The Pitch of Unaccented Syllables 262

11．6．2 The Functions of Intonation 264

11．6．2．1 Intonational Phrasing 264

11．6．2．2 Primary Accents and New Information 265

11．6．2．3 The Meanings of Tones 267

11．6．2．4 The Use of Secondary Accents 273

11．6．3 Regional Variation in Intonation 273

11．6．4 Pitch Range 273

11．6．5 Intonation and Punctuation 274

11．6．6 Acquisition of Intonation by Native Learners 275

11．6．7 Advice to Foreign Learners 275

11．7 Hesitations 276

11．8 Voice Quality 277

12 Words in Connected Speech 278

12．1 Citation Forms and Connected Speech 278

12．2 Neutralization of Weak Forms 280

12．3 Variation in the Accentual Pattern of Words 280

12．4 Phonemic and Phonetic Variations at Boundaries 280

12．4．1 Allophonic Variations 281

12．4．2 Phonemic Variations 283

12．4．3 Voiced/Voiceless Variations 283

12．4．4 Nasality and Labialization 284

12．4．5 Variations of Place 285

12．4．6 Elision 286

12．4．7 Liaison 288

12．4．8 Juncture 290

12．5 Frequency of Qccurrence of Monosyllabic and Polysyllabic Words 291

12．6 Advice to Foreign Learners 292

12．7 Stylistic Variation 293

13 Teaching the Pronunciation of English 296

13．1 The Place of Pronunciation 296

13．2 Models of Pronunciation 297

13．2．1 Choice of Basic Model 297

13．2．2 A Wider-based RP 297

13．3 Performance Targets 298

13．4 High Priorities 300

13．4．1 Rhythm and Accent 300

13．4．2 Segmental Sounds 300

13．4．3 Sounds in Connected Speech 301

13．4．4 Intonation 301

13．5 RP High Acceptability 302

13．5．1 Vowels 302

13．5．2 Consonants 305

13．5．3 Sounds in Connected Speech 306

13．5．4 Accentuation 307

13．5．5 Intonation 307

13．6 Minimum General Intelligibility 308

13．6．1 Vowels 309

13．6．2 Consonants 310

13．6．3 Intonation 312

13．6．4 Sounds in Connected Speech 313

13．6．5 Minimum General Intelligibility: Conclusion 313

13．7 Teaching Methods 313

13．7．1 Vowels 315

13．7．2 Consonants 315

13．7．3 Accentuation 316

13．7．4 Intonation 316

13．8 Pronouncing Dictionaries 317

13．9 Assessment 318

Bibliography 320

Index 333

文库索引 340