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1 Preparing specifications for achievement tests 1

Discussion 6

References 8

Preface by Haliday F 10

2 Selecting and ordering of questions and question choice 10

Selecting items and questions 10

王宗炎序 F 11

Ordering items and questions and the effect of context 12

Preface by Chomsky F 14

Choice of questions 16

References 18

3 Administrative issues 20

Design of rubrics 20

沈家煊序 F 21

Time limits 21

导读 F 24

Time limits and the disabled 24

Training for test-taking including training for test-wiseness 25

Open book examinations 28

References 29

Foreword F 32

4 Multiple choice testing 32

Preface F 34

Number of alternatives 38

Use of none of these 40

Scoring systems and instructions to deal with guessing 41

Answer until correct 44

Changing answers 45

Confidence weighting 45

Differential weighting of responses 47

Summary 48

References 50

5 Essay questions 53

Nature of extended writing 53

Constructs of writing 54

Constructing questions 55

Marking answers 57

Sources of error 58

Analytic vs.holistic or impression marking 61

Handwriting 63

Operational marking procedures and real time experiments 64

Summing up 67

References 68

6 School-based assessment including Records of Achievement 71

Validity considerations 72

Reliability considerations 73

Moderation 76

Weighting 77

Records of Achievement 78

Discussion 80

References 81

7 Criterion-referenced testing including graded assessment 83

Technical characteristics of criterion-referenced testing 85

A good,modern,successful example of criterion-referenced testing:the Degrees of Reading Power(DRP)test 87

Graded assessment 89

Summing up 91

References 92

8 Diagnostic assessment 94

Mastery of behavioural objectives 96

Error analysis 97

Knowledge structure 101

Discussion 102

References 103

9 Item analysis 105

Item discrimination for norm-referenced tests 105

Modern item analysis methods 108

Item analysis for criterion-referenced tests 113

References 115

10 Scoring,weighting,combining and scaling 117

Scoring 118

Weighting 119

Combining 120

Scaling 123

References 130

11 Reliability 132

Reliability of grading 134

The various kinds of reliability 136

Estimating the reliability of components,singly and in combination 136

Mark-re-mark estimates of reliability 140

Standard error of measurement 141

Generalisability analysis 142

Discussion 143

References 144

12 Validity and validation 146

An example of a validity study 152

Psychological tests and validity 154

References 155

13 Differentiation 157

Multilevel testing 159

Two-stage testing 160

Differentiation within papers 161

Differentiation between papers 162

Grade limitation 163

References 164

14 Bias 166

Bias in relation to achievement tests including examinations 167

Bias in relation to aptitude tests 175

Conclusions 180

References 180

15 How practical work is assessed 184

Observing performance in groups 189

Discussion 191

References 192

16 Assessing individuals working collaboratively in groups 194

Discussion 198

References 199

17 Aptitude testing 201

Predictive or criterion-related validity 203

Research on item types 207

Speededness 208

Tailored testing 209

Discussion 210

References 211

18 Personnel selection and assessment 213

Application form 214

References 215

Interviews 216

Educational qualifications 217

Experience 219

Age 219

Cognitive tests 220

Realistic job preview 220

Work sample tests 222

Trainability tests 224

Discussion 225

References 226

19 Language testing 230

The three phases of language testing 234

Authenticity 235

Direct vs.indirect tests 237

The application of item response theory 239

Assessment through speech 240

Discussion 240

References 241

20 Innovation and the influence of research 245

References 257

Glossary 258

Index 261

文库索引 274