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Section A-The elements 1

A1 The periodic table 1

A2 Electron configuration 6

A3 Isotopes 8

Section B-Chemical bonds and molecular shape 15

B1 Molecular orbitals 15

B2 Nature of chemical bonding 19

B3 Shapes of some small molecules 24

B4 Drawing chemical structures 28

B5 Cleavage of chemical bonds 31

Section C-Small molecules of biological importance 33

C1 Water 33

C2 Phosphoric acid and phosphates 37

Section D-Carbon,the basis for life on Earth 41

D1 Properties of carbon 41

D2 Naming organic compounds 44

E1 Isomerism 49

Section E-3D-molecular structure of organic compounds 49

E2 Stereoisomerism 56

E3 Optical activity and resolution 64

Section F-Some metals in biology 67

F1 The early transition metals 67

F2 Iron 71

F3 Magnesium and manganese 76

F4 Cobalt and molybdenum 81

Section G-Molecular interactions 87

G1 Hydrogen bonds 87

G2 Hydrophobic interactions 92

Section H-Common reaction types of carbon based compounds 97

H1 Reactive species 97

H2 Classification of organic reactions 101

H3 Factors affecting reactivity 108

Section I-Organic compounds by chemical class 113

I1 Alcohols and related compounds 113

I2 Aldehydes and ketones 118

I3 Carboxylic acids and esters 124

I4 Amines and amides 128

Section J-Aromatic compounds 133

J1 Aromaticity 133

J2 Natural aromatics 138

Section K-Chemical synthesis of biological molecules 145

K1 Peptide synthesis 145

K2 Oligonucleotide synthesis 152

Section L-Aqueous behavior 159

L1 Lowry-Bronstead acid and base 159

L2 Dissociation constants of acids and bases 162

L3 Acidity and alkalinity of aqueous solutions 165

L4 Buffers 168

L5 Solubility 174

Section M-Elementary thermodynamics 177

M1 Basic concepts 177

M2 First law of thermodynamics 179

M3 Second law of thermodynamics 183

M4 Third law of thermodynamics 186

Section N-Kinetics 189

N1 Introduction 189

N2 Determination of reaction order 193

N3 Molecularity 195

N4 Enzyme kinetics 198

N5 Catalysis and thermodynamic versus kinetic control 205

O1 The electromagnetic sPectrum 209

Section O-Spectroscopy 209

O2 Ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry 212

O3 Fluorescence 217

O4 Infrared spectrophotometry 221

O5 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy 225

O6 Mass spectrometry 234

Further reading 239

Index 241