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1 SOME PRELIMINARIES 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2.1 A preliminary classification of grammatical forms 4

1.2 What is a grammaticalized form? 4

1.2.2 Clines 6

1.2.3 Periphrasis versus affixation 8

1.3.1 Lets 10

1.3 Some further examples of grammaticalization 10

Preface by Halliday F 12

王宗炎序 F 13

1.3.2 A West African complementizer 14

Preface by Chommsky F 16

1.3.3 Agreement markers 16

1.4 Grammaticalization and language structure 17

2 THE HISTORY OF GRAMMATICALIZATION 18

2.1 Introduction 18

2.2 Earlier research on grammaticalization 18

沈家煊序 F 23

2.3 More recent research on grammaticalization 24

导读 F 26

2.4 Current trends in research on grammaticalization 30

3.1 Introduction 32

3 MECHANISMS REANALYSIS AND ANALOGY 32

3.2 Some background assumptions about change 33

3.1 A model of language change 34

Preface and acknowledgements F 36

3.3 Induction,deduction,abduction 38

3.4 Reanalysis 40

List of abbreviations F 40

3.4.1 The French inflectional future 42

3.4.2 The Tarahumara third person pronoun 44

3.4.3 The English modal auxiliaries 45

3.5 The independence of reanalysis and grammaticalization 48

3.5.1 Word order change 50

3.6 Analogy/rule generalization 56

3.1 Grammaticalization of VO word order in English between AD 1000 and AD 1500 60

3.2 Schema of the development of auxiliary be going to 61

3.7 The different effects of reanalysis and analogy 61

4 PRAGMATIC INFERENCING 63

4.1 Introduction 63

4.2 Inferencing and meaning change 67

4.2.1 Semantics versus pragmatics 68

4.2.2 Relationships between senses of a form:homonymy and polysemy 69

4.2.3 Conversational and conventional inferencing 72

4.3 The role of pragmatic inferencing in grammaticalization 75

4.3.1 Metaphorical processes 77

4.3.2 Metonymic processes 80

4.4 Metaphor and metonymy as problem solving 86

4.5 Pragmatic enrichment versus bleaching 87

4.1 Revised schema of the development of auxiliary be going to 88

5.1 Introduction 94

5 THE HYPOTHESIS OF UNIDIRECTIONALITY 94

5.2 Generalization 96

5.2.1 Generalization of meaning 96

5.2.2 Generalization of grammatical function 100

5.3 Decategorialization 103

5.3.1 A noun-to-affix cline 106

5.3.2 A verb-to-affix cline 108

5.1 Ratio of compound verbs in Marathi and Hindi-Urdu according to semantic class of main verb 111

5.3.3 Multiple paths 112

5.4 Some processes participating in unidirectionality 113

5.4.1 Specialization 113

5.4.2 Divergence 116

5.4.3 Renewal 121

5.5 A synchronic result of unidirectionality 123

5.5.1 Layering 124

5.6 Counterexamples to unidirectionality 126

5.7 An unresolved question 128

6.2 Morphologization 130

6 CLAUSE-INTERNAL MORPHOLOGICAL CHANGES 130

6.1 Introduction 130

6.1 Buryat Mongolian pronouns and verb endings 131

6.2.1 Some characteristics of clitics 132

6.2.2 Positions of clitics 133

6.2 Polish tonic and clitic forms of the copula 135

6.3 Bonding of clitic copula to verb stem in Polish,AD 1500 to the present 136

6.4 Differential univerbation of preterit verb and personnumber suffix in Polish dialects 138

6.2.3 Semantic relevance as a factor in fusion and morpheme order 141

6.5 Affixal aspect-tense-mood forms 144

6.2.4 Phonological concomitants of morphologization 145

6.3 The development of paradigms 150

6.6 Old Norse present indicative reflexive verb forms 151

6.7 Pre-Sanskrit noun inflection 154

6.8 Sanskrit and pre-Pali forms of the copula 154

6.9 Pre-Pali and Pali forms of the copula 155

6.10 Differential inflection of the aorist in Bulgarian dialects 155

6.4 Argument structure marking:functional-semantic hierarchies and morphological generalization 156

6.11 Differential inflection of past participles in Bulgarian dialects 156

6.4.1 Object marking in Persian 157

6.4.2 Ergative case marking:a statistical perspective 160

6.5 Loss 163

6.12 Old English strong adjective singular inflection 164

7.1 Introduction 167

7 GRAMMATICALIZATION ACROSS CLAUSES 167

7.2 A cline of clause combining constructions 168

7.1 Properties relevant to the cline of clause combining 171

7.2.1 Parataxis 171

7.2.2 Hypotaxis 174

7.2.3 Subordination 176

7.3 The grammaticalization of clause linkers 177

7.4 Some counterexamples to unidirectionality in clause combining 184

7.5 Examples of the development of complex sentence constructions 185

7.5.1 That-complementation in English 185

7.5.2 Relative clauses in English and Hittite 190

7.5.3 From clause chaining to verb inflectionin Lhasa 198

7.5.4 From main clause construction to sentential adverb in contemporary English 201

7.1 Occurrence of that with think and guess versus all other verbs 202

8.1 Introduction 204

8 SOME FURTHER ISSUES 204

8.2 Grammaticalization versus parametric change 204

8.3 Contact 209

Notes 222

References 226

Index of names 246

Index of languages 250

General index 252

文库索引 257