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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 What is Contrastive Linguistics? 1

1.1.1 The Name and Nature of Contrastive Linguistics 2

1.1.1.1 Linguistics 2

1.1.1.2 Contrastive Linguistics(Contrastive Analysis) 4

1.1.2 Micro-Contrastive Linguistics and Macro-Contrastive Linguistics 10

1.2 Why Contrastive Linguistics? 11

1.2.1 The Theoretical Need for Contrastive Linguistics 12

1.2.2 The Practical Need for Contrastive Linguistics 13

1.3 The History and Development of Contrastive Linguistics 18

Questions for Discussion and Research 26

CHAPTER 2 THE PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS 28

2.1 Basic Assumptions and Hypotheses Underlying Contrastive Analysis(CA) 28

2.1.1 The Psychological Basis of Contrastive Analysis:Transfer 29

2.1.2 The Strong and Weak Versions of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis 30

2.1.3 The Predictive Power of Contrastive Analysis 31

2.2 Theoretical Contrastive Analysis and Applied Contrastive Analysis 32

2.3 Criteria for Comparison 37

2.3.1 The Surface Structure(SS) 38

2.3.2 The Deep Structure(DS) 40

2.3.3 Translation Equivalence 44

2.4 Procedures of Contrastive Analysis 49

Questions for Discussion and Research 50

CHAPTER 3 PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGICAL CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS 52

3.1 Phonetics and Phonology 52

3.2 Contrastive Phonetics 54

3.2.1 Articulatory Phonetics 54

3.2.1.1 Vocal organs(articulators)and the dynamics of voice production 54

3.2.1.2 The modulation of speech sounds 58

3.2.2 Acoustic Phonetics 60

3.2.2.1 Frequency 60

3.2.2.2 Amplitude of vibration 61

3.2.2.3 Timbre 61

3.2.3 Auditory Phonetics 62

3.3 Contrastive Phonology 65

3.3.1 Phonological Contrastive Analysis 65

3.3.1.1 The functional statuses of comparable speech sounds in different languages 65

3.3.1.2 Pronunciation problems caused by phonemic asymmetries and by allophonic differences 66

3.3.1.3 The functional loads of comparable phonological contrasts in different languages 67

3.3.2 Two Phonological Models 68

3.3.2.1 The taxonomic or structural phonology 68

3.3.2.2 Generative phonology 69

3.4 Suprasegmental Contrastive Analysis 71

3.4.1 The Contrastive Analysis of Pitch 72

3.4.1.1 Tone 72

3.4.1.2 Intonation 73

3.4.2 The Contrastive Analysis of Juncture 75

Questions for Discussion and Research 76

CHAPTER 4 LEXICAL CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS 78

4.1 Contrastive Lexical Morphology 79

4.1.1 Lexical/Derivational Morphology and Inflectional Morphology 79

4.1.2 Morpheme 80

4.1.2.1 Free morpheme 80

4.1.2.2 Bound morpheme 80

4.1.2.2.1 Affix 80

4.1.2.2.2 Combining form 81

4.1.2.3 Stem(base morpheme)and root 81

4.1.3 A Comparison of the Makeup of English and Chinese Word Stock 82

4.2 Contrastive Lexical Semantics 84

4.2.1 The Motivation(Internal Form)of Words 85

4.2.1.1 Phonetic motivation 86

4.2.1.2 Graphemic motivation 86

4.2.1.3 Morphological motivation 87

4.2.1.4 Semantic motivation 87

4.2.1.5 A contrastive analysis of the morphological motivation of English,German,and Chinese words 87

4.2.2 Sense Relationships 91

4.2.2.1 Syntagmatic semantic relationship:Collocation 92

4.2.2.2 Paradigmatic semantic relationships 94

4.2.2.2.1 Synonymy 94

4.2.2.2.2 Antonymy 95

4.2.2.2.3 Hyponymy 96

4.2.2.2.4 Incompatibility 98

4.2.2.3 Lexical fields and Iexical gaps 98

4.2.3 Semantic Features 102

4.3 Three Active Areas 107

4.3.1 Anthropology 107

4.3.2 Translation 113

4.3.3 Bilingual Lexicography 118

Questions for Discussion and Research 119

CHAPTER 5 GRAMMATICAL CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS 121

5.1 The Concept of Grammar 121

5.2 The Contrastive Analysis of Inflectional Morphology 123

5.2.1 Grammatical Categories 125

5.2.1.1 Aspect 125

5.2.1.2 Case 127

5.2.1.3 Gender 128

5.2.1.4 Mood 128

5.2.1.5 Number 128

5.2.1.6 Person 129

5.2.1.7 Tense 129

5.2.1.8 Voice 129

5.2.2 A Contrastive Study of the Chinese and English Case Systems 130

5.3 Syntactic Contrastive Analysis 134

5.3.1 The Structural Approach(Surface-structure Contrasts) 134

5.3.2 The Weaknesses of the Structural Approach 138

5.3.3 The Generative Approaches 139

5.3.3.1 The Transformational Grammarian approach(For deep-structure contrasts) 140

5.3.3.2 The Case Grammarian approach(For deeper-structure contrasts) 146

Questions for Discussion and Research 153

CHAPTER 6 TEXTUAL CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS 155

6.1 Text and Discourse 157

6.2 The Defining Characteristics of the Text 158

6.3 The Contrastive Analysis of Textual Cohesion 161

6.3.1 Semantic Cohesion 163

6.3.1.1 Reference 163

6.3.1.2 Substitution 166

6.3.1.3 Ellipsis 167

6.3.1.4 Conjunction 169

6.3.1.5 Lexical relationships("Iexical cohesion") 173

6.3.2 Structural Cohesion 174

6.3.2.1 Parallelism 174

6.3.2.2 Comparison 179

6.3.2.3 Information structure 179

6.3.2.3.1 Theme and Rheme 180

6.3.2.3.2 Functional Sentence Perspective(FSP) 181

6.3.2.3.3 Topic and Comment 182

6.3.3 Different Languages Preferring Different Cohesive Devices 191

6.4 The Contrastive Analysis of Textual Coherence 191

Questions for Discussion and Research 199

CHAPTER 7 PRAGMATIC CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS 202

7.1 Speech Act Theory 202

7.1.1 Speech Acts 203

7.1.1.1 Performatives and constatives 203

7.1.1.2 Three kinds of speech acts 203

7.1.1.3 Five basic types of illocutionary acts 204

7.1.2 Felicity Conditions 205

7.2 Conversational Interaction 206

7.2.1 The Structural Components of Conversation 207

7.2.1.1 Openings 207

7.2.1.2 The maintaining of a conversation 209

7.2.1.3 Closings 214

7.2.2 Principles of Conversational Organization 216

7.2.2.1 The Cooperative Principle(Be Clear) 216

7.2.2.1.1 Conversational maxims 216

7.2.2.1.2 Conversational implicature 217

7.2.2.2 The Rules of Politeness(Be Polite) 220

7.2.2.2.1 Rule 1:Don't impose on your hearer 220

7.2.2.2.2 Rule 2: Give the hearer options 222

7.2.2.2.3 Rule 3:Make the hearer feel good:Be friendly 222

Questions for Discussion and Research 224

REFERENCES 226

INDEX 234