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1 PRELIMINARIES 1

1.1 Prosodic features 1

1.1.1 Length,loudness,and pitch 2

1.1.1.1 Length 2

1.1.1.2 Loudness 2

1.1.1.3 Pitch 3

1.1.1.4 Summary 5

1.2 Auditory and instrumental 5

1.3 Prominence 6

1.4 Intonation 7

1.5 Tone languages 8

1.6 Pitch accent languages 10

1.7 Summary 12

Sources and further reading 12

2 STRESS,ACCENT,AND RHYTHM 13

2.1 Stress and accent 13

2.2 Word-stress 14

2.2.1 English word-stress 15

2.3 Degrees of stress/accent 17

2.4 Rhythm 20

2.5 Prosodic hierarchies 22

2.6 Summary 25

Sources and further reading 25

3 THE FORMS OF INTONATION 26

3.1 The historical background to intonational studies 26

3.2 Intonation-groups 29

3.2.1 Pause 30

3.2.2 Other boundary markers 32

3.2.3 Internal structure as group marker 35

3.2.4 Problems in group delimitation 35

3.3 Contours and levels 38

3.4 Pitch accents and nucleus 40

3.5 Accent range,key,and register 44

3.6 Whole tunes and nuclear tones 47

3.7 English nuclear tones 50

3.8 Pre-nuclear pitch accents 54

3.9 Alternatives to nuclear tones 55

3.9.1 Autosegmental approaches(1) 56

3.9.2 Autosegmental approaches(2) 59

3.10 Summary and preview 66

Sources and further reading 66

4 THE FUNCTIONS OF INTONATION 68

4.1 Introduction 68

4.2 Intonation-groups 68

4.3 Nucleus placement 73

4.3.1 Broad focus 74

4.3.2 Narrow focus 80

4.3.3 New andold information 81

4.3.3.1 Contrastivity 82

4.3.3.2 Echoes 84

4.3.3.3 Insists 85

4.3.4 'Normal stress' 86

4.4 English nuclear tones 87

4.4.1 Local meanings 91

4.4.1.1 Falls 91

4.4.1.2 Rises(dependent) 93

4.4.1.3 Rises(independent) 97

4.4.1.4 Tonal sequences 103

4.4.2 Conditioning factors 104

4.4.3 Abstract meanings 106

4.4.3.1 A two-tone approach 106

4.4.3.2 A three-tone approach 108

4.4.3.3 A compositional approach 110

4.4.4 Tonal features 114

4.4.4.1 Accent range 115

4.4.4.2 Complexity 117

4.4.4.3 Stylisation 119

4.4.4.4 Declination and downstep 120

4.5 Key and register 123

4.6 Summary 125

Sources and further reading 125

5 COMPARATIVE INTONATION 128

5.1 Introduction 128

5.2 Style,class,and sex 128

5.3 Dialectal variation 131

5.3.1 British English 133

5.3.2 Variation in English dialects outside Britain 136

5.4 Cross-linguistic comparisons 138

5.4.1 Comparative intonation-groupings 139

5.4.2 Comparative nucleus placement 139

5.4.3 Comparative tone:alternative models 144

5.4.4 Comparative tone:basic typology 149

5.4.4.1 Declaratives 151

5.4.4.2 Yes/no interrogatives 155

5.4.4.3 Question word interrogatives 159

5.4.4.4 Imperatives and exclamatives 160

5.4.4.5 Pre-nuclear accents 160

5.4.4.6 Stereotyped patterns and chants 161

5.5 Intonational universals 161

5.5.1 Declination 162

5.5.2 Tonal universals 163

5.6 Intonational change 164

5.7 Intonation acquisition 166

5.8 Summary 169

Sources and further reading 169

6 CONSPECTUS 172

6.1 Prosodic,paralinguistic,and extralinguistic 172

6.1.1 Prosodic features 173

6.1.2 Paralinguistic effects 174

6.2 Intonation and punctuation 175

6.3 Intonation and gesture 177

6.4 State-of-the-art 178

Sources and further reading 178

References 180

Index 197