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Chapter1．EnvironmentalStandards,Markets,andthe 1

CommonLawTheConceptofEnvironmentalRegulation 1

Chapter1．EnvironmentalStandards,Markets,andthe 1

EthicsandEfficiency:TheMoralBasisofPollution 2

ControlTheEPAandItsAuthoritytoPermitandEnforce 3

SettingtheStandardforEmissionstothe 5

EnvironmentConventionalPollutants 6

ToxicPollutants 6

SpeciesandHabitat: 7

ToolsandTechniquesofEnvironmentalProtection 7

TechnologyForcingStandards 7

RegulationofExistingVersusNewEmitters 8

TaxesandSubsidies 9

FlexibleMarketIncentives 10

RiskAssessment 12

SummaryofContentsContents 13

CommonLawEnvironmentalRemedies 15

KeyDistinctions 15

Nuisance 16

Trespass 21

Negligence 21

StrictLiability 22

PublicTrustDoctrine 24

Preface 25

TheAvailabilityofCriminalSanctions 26

Acknowledgments 27

Chapter2．AdministrativeProcedureforEnvironmental 31

CommonLawChapter2．AdministrativeProcedureforEnvironmentalRegulation 31

RegulationWheretheActionIs 31

DrawingtheLine:TheNondelegationDoctrine 34

StayingWithintheTent:TheUltraViresDoctrine 36

TypesofAgencyActions 37

TheAdministrativeProcedureAct 37

InformalRulemaking 38

Adjudications 39

FormalRulemaking 39

StayingCurrent 40

HybridProcedures 40

Reg-Neg 41

TheProcessandJudicialReview 42

StandingtoSue 42

RipenessoftheAction 47

ExhaustionofAdministrativeRemedies 49

StandardsofJudicialReview 51

WhatCanBeAppealedtotheCourts 52

TheChoiceofStandard 53

RemediesandFees 58

FederalTortClaimsAct 58

EqualAccesstoJusticeAct 59

PublicAccesstoInformation 61

FreedomofInformationAct 61

FederalAdvisoryCommitteeAct 63

TheSunshineAct 64

Chapter3．TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct 67

TheStructureofNEPA 67

Chapter3．TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct 67

TheNEPAText 68

IntheBeginning:SubstanceandProcedure 69

TheEISProcess 73

TheAdministrativeProcess 73

TheThresholdDecision 74

MajorFederalAction 76

SignificantlyAffectingtheQualityofthe 78

HumanEnvironmentTheHumanEnvironment 81

JudicialReviewUnderNEPA 83

TimingandScopeoftheEIS 92

When:TimingoftheEIS 92

Actions:ProgramImpactStatements, 95

Who,What,andWhere:ScopeoftheEIS 95

Segmentation,andtheSmallHandleProblemAlternativestotheProposedAction 98

WhenAgain:TheSupplementalEIS 100

ImposeLiability:106and 107

AdequacyoftheEIS:AnalysisandAlternatives 107

ToAnalyzeorNottoAnalyze?EISUncertainty 108

AnalysisofSufficientEnvironmentalImpacts 108

Cost-BenefitAnalysis 109

andPossibleDelayWorst-CaseRiskAnalysis 109

TreatmentofAlternatives 110

No-ActionAlternative 111

PrimaryAlternatives 112

SecondaryAlternatives 112

MitigationMeasures 112

JudicialReviewofAdequacy:Substancevs. 113

StatutoryExemptions 114

ProcedureExemptionsfromNEPA 114

StatutoryConflicts:TheFlintRidgeCase 115

InternationalEnvironmentalEffects 116

NationalSecurity 116

Chapter4．ConstitutionalIssues:TheCommerceClauseand 127

Chapter4．ConstitutionalIssues:TheCommerceClauseand 127

RegulateInterstateCommerceDirectFederalRegulation 128

EnvironmentalPreemptionTheCommerceClauseandEnvironmentalRegulation 128

IssueOne:ThePlenaryPowerofCongressto 128

TheTenthAmendmentLimitationonFederal 129

DormantCommerceClauseGeographicallyDiscriminatoryLegislation 132

PowertoRegulateIssueTwo:RestrictionofStatePower—The 132

TheBalancingTestforStateLegislationThatIs 136

NotFaciallyDiscriminatorybutMayBurdenInterstateCommerceMarketParticipantAnalysis:WhenaStateDoes 139

NotRegulateFederalPreemptionofStateEnvironmentalRegulation 144

ExpressPreemption 145

ImpliedPreemption 145

SavingsClausesinEnvironmentalStatutes 149

EnvironmentalPreemptionChapter5．AirQualityRegulation 153

SourcesofAirPollution 153

TheBasicsofAirPollutionRegulation 153

Chapter5．AirQualityRegulation 153

AirPollutionRegulationPriorto1970 155

AmbientAirQuality:AreaRegulation 156

TheCleanAirActAmendmentsof1970 156

SourceControls:RegulationofIndividual 163

EmittersofPollutantsTheCleanAirActAmendmentsof1977 165

TheConceptofNonattainment:Geographic 166

StandardsExistingSources:RACT 167

NonattainmentAreas:NewSourceReview 168

(NSR)AttainmentAreas:PreventionofSignificant 170

Deterioration(PSD)SummaryofPermitting 172

TheCleanAirActAmendmentsof1990 177

AttainmentandMaintenanceofNAAQS:TitleI 177

FailuretoAchieveCompliance 177

Pollutant-SpecificRequirementsfor 179

EmissionControls 188

NonattainmentAreasRegulatingMobileSources:TitleⅡ 188

FuelPrograms 189

VehicleFleetPrograms 190

HazardousAirPollutants(NESHAPs):TitleⅢ 195

AcidDepositionControl:TitleⅣ 199

StratosphericOzoneProtection:TitleⅥ 202

EPAEnforcement 204

EnforcementProvisions:TitleⅦ 204

PrivilegedLegalInformation 206

CriminalPenalties 206

CitizenSuits 206

Chapter6．WaterPollution 213

Chapter6．WaterPollution 213

TheImportanceofWater 213

WaterQualityandPollution 215

PrimarySourcesofWaterPollution 215

PointSources 215

NonpointSources 217

TypesandMeasurementsofWaterPollution 217

BiologicalHazards 218

ChemicalHazards 218

EarlyWaterQualityandEffluentRegulation 221

TheRiverandHarborsActof1899 221

TwentiethCenturyPre-1972WaterPollution 222

ControlFederalWaterPollutionControlAct 224

TheStructure 224

Permits 225

Health-BasedStandards 228

Health-BasedandTechnology-BasedStandards 228

ToxicPollutants 228

Technology-BasedStandards 229

ExistingIndustrialSources 231

AmendmentsRegulatingDischarges 231

POTWs 234

NewIndustrialSources 235

NonpointSources 236

FDFVariances 238

Water-QualityStandards 243

Enforcement 245

TheSafeDrinkingWaterAct 247

AdditionalFederalWaterPollutionStatutes 247

TheCoastalZoneManagementAct 248

OtherWaterPollutionStatutes 248

TheOilPollutionAct 250

TheMarineProtectionAct 252

TheFishandWildlifeCoordinationAct 253

Chapter7．RightstoUseWater 255

Chapter7．RightstoUseWater 255

WhatAreRiparianWaterRights? 256

RiparianWaterRights:GeographicDetermination 256

SurfaceWaterRights 256

WaterTypesSubjecttoRiparianRights 257

RiparianLand 258

TheEvolutionoftheReasonableUseRule 260

TheEffectofNon-UseandPrescription 261

DevelopmentofPriorAppropriation 265

TheSystemofPriorAppropriation:FirstinTime 265

ObtainingPriorityRights:Appropriation 266

TheTransferorConveyanceofWaterRights 268

WaterThatMayBeAppropriated 268

AdministrativePermitSystems 269

DualSystemStates 269

ConstitutionalIssues 271

GroundwaterAllocation 275

RiparianRights 275

PriorAppropriationRights 276

FederalandTribalRights 277

Chapter8．TheManagementofHazardousandSolidWastes: 281

Chapter8．TheManagementofHazardousandSolidWastes: 281

RCRAWhatWasteIsRegulated? 282

RCRA sPurposeandGoals 282

TriggerOne:RCRARegulates Wastes 283

CriteriaforIdentifyingRegulatedHazardous 285

TriggerTwo:RCRARegulatesHazardousWastes 285

WastesHazardousWastesRegulatedUnderOther 287

StatutesareExcludedfromRCRARegulationOtherUnregulatedorMinimallyRegulated 290

WastesRegulationofHazardousWasteGenerators 294

RegulationofHazardousWasteTransporters 297

TSDFacilityRegulation 299

InterimStatusFacilities 300

PermanentPermittedStatusFacilities 301

RelationtoOtherRegulation 302

TheLandBan 304

StateandLocalGovernmentRegulation 306

WrestlingtheTiger:EnforcementbyAgenciesand 310

CitizensInformationGatheringbytheEPA:3007 310

Information 310

Inspections 311

MonitoringandTesting:3O13 312

CitizenSuits:7002 313

TheContribution 317

ImminentandSubstantialEndangermentActions: 317

TheActors 318

Remedies 319

Scienter 320

CriminalViolations 320

Penalties 322

RCRARemediesandBankruptcyPowers 323

UndergroundStorageTanks(UST) 324

SubsidiaryRCRARegulatoryPrograms 324

MedicalWasteTrackingActof1988 326

Conclusion 327

RCRAChapter9．TheSuperfund:HazardousSubstanceRemediation 331

Chapter9．TheSuperfund:HazardousSubstanceRemediation 331

HoWSuperfundIsDifferentfromOther 332

TheMechanicsofCERCLA 332

WastesandOtherSubstances 333

EnvironmentalLawsProspectiveorRetrospective 333

PersonsandPlaces 335

BasicStructure 336

CommonLawDistinctions 336

InformationandInspection:103and104 337

KeyCERCLADefinitions 338

Clean-upAuthority:104and105 340

TheSuperfund:111and112 344

The1986SARAAmendments 345

LiabilityAllocation:107 345

TheFourBasicTools 354

106OrdersandInjunctiveRemedies 354

EPAToolstoAccomplishPollutionAbatementand 354

107Litigation 355

104FriendlyPersuasion 356

StrictLiability 357

ProximateCause 357

Generators 358

OwnersandOperators 359

OfficerLiability 360

Transporters 361

BasicDefenses 362

AssignmentandAllocationofLiabilitytoPrivateParties 373

JointandSeveral,orSeveral,Liability? 374

DivisibilityoftheHarm 375

EquitableFactorsasApportionmentTools 376

PrivatePRP107Actions:TheKramerRule 377

UniformContributionAmongTortfeasorsAct 379

PrivatePartyAllocation:113 379

(UCATA)UniformComparativeFaultAct(UCFA) 380

StatutesofLimitationandReview 381

StrategicCERCLALitigationChoicesand 381

OutcomesSubstantiveDistinctions 381

MunicipalLiability 395

SituationsLiabilityStatusofUnconventional Persons 395

TheApplicationofCERCLALiabilityinSpecial 395

LiabilityofTrustees,Fiduciaries,andLenders 396

LiabilityofParentCorporationforActsofthe 399

SubsidiarySuccessorCorporationLiability 401

LiabilityofPersonsDuringTimesofWar 402

ClausesInterplaywithBankruptcyLaw 406

EffectofIndemnitiesand HoldHarmless 406

InterrelationshipofCERCLAandOtherLaw 406

ThePetroleumExclusion 407

NaturalResourceDamagesandEconomicLoss 408

LiensAgainstPRPProperty 409

InterlocutoryChallenge:The TakeItor 410

LeaveIt PropositionCriminalandCivilPenalties 412

InsuranceCompensationforContamination:Who 415

UltimatelyPays?TheDutytoDefend 416

TheRequirementofan Occurrence Within 417

thePolicyPeriodThe Trigger ofCoverage 417

ThePollutionExclusionClauseandIts 418

Interpretation: SuddenandAccidental PollutingEventsTheAbsolutePollutionExclusion 419

EquitableReliefvs.Damages:AreClean-up 420

LandUse,PropertyRights,andEnvironmentalLaw 423

CostsCoveredUndertheCGLPolicy?Chapter10．LocalEnvironmentalControl 423

Chapter10．LocalEnvironmentalControl 423

HistoryandEvolutionofZoningTechniques 424

ZoningandtheEnvironment 424

ZoningandCriticalEnvironmentalHabitats 424

LegalProblemswithZoning 429

ClusterZoning 430

EuclideanZoning 430

EnvironmentalZoningTechniques 430

TransferableDevelopmentRights(TDRs) 432

PlannedUnitDevelopment(PUD) 432

EnvironmentalOverlayDistricts 433

OpenSpaceZoning 433

RestrictionsonGrowth 434

Exactions 435

ConservationEasements,LandAcquisition,and 435

TaxationPerformanceStandards 436

RegulationofCriticalEnvironmentalResources 438

TheCoastalZone 438

Wetlands 441

OtherCriticalAreas 441

MunicipalLicensingforEnvironmentalGoals 444

TheMunicipalPowertoLicense 444

BuildingandOccupancyPermits 445

NonconformingUsesandTheirDestruction 446

BoardofHealthEnvironmentalAuthority 448

CommonLawLandUseControls 449

ThePublicTrustDoctrine 449

WasteandNuisance 451

LegalLimitationsonEnvironmentalLandUse 452

RegulationThe Takings ClauseLimitation 452

ProceduralLimitations 455

Chapter11．PreservationofNaturalAreas:WetlandsandOpenSpace 459

Chapter11．PreservationofNaturalAreas:WetlandsandOpen 459

SpaceWetlandsandWaterways 459

WhatIsaWetland? 460

RegulationofWetlands 463

TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA) 463

TheRiverandHarborsActof1899 463

EarlyRegulation 463

TheWildandScenicRiversAct 464

TheFederalWaterPollutionControlAct 464

Exemptions 465

TheExtentofJurisdictionUndertheClean 466

TheArmyCorpsofEngineers 470

WaterActJurisdictionalOverlapsinImplementing404 470

EPAVeto 472

AdministrativeReview 473

ReviewofEPAorCorps Decisions 473

RegulatoryTakings 474

CitizenSuitsUnder505 474

TheRoleoftheStatesinWetlandsProtection 477

StateWetlandsProtectionJurisdiction 478

StateControlofthe404Program 478

TheAgenciesinControl 481

ProtectedNaturalResourceAreas 481

WildernessAreas 484

ForestService 485

MineralExploitation 486

Grazing 487

Chapter12．EnergyandPower:TheUltimateResource 489

Chapter12．EnergyandPower:TheUltimateResource 489

TheRoleofElectricity 490

ElectricPowerandtheEnvironment 490

ElectricityasaSpecialResource 491

TheHistoryofPower 491

HighEnergy 491

EnergyEfficiency 496

PollutionfromPowerPlants 497

WhereDoesItComeFrom—WhereDoesItGo? 503

RegulationofPublicUtilities 503

HoWUtilityRatesAreSet 505

Federalvs.StateRegulation 509

TheFiledRateDoctrine 510

DeregulationofPowerGeneration 513

DeregulationofPower 513

PowerBidding 517

DeregulationofPowerandWheeling 517

RetailSalesandWheeling 518

OilandGasintheAmericanEconomy 523

OilandGasRights 523

EnvironmentalRepercussions 524

OwnershipandTransferofOilandGasRights 525

Chapter13．TheEndangeredSpeciesAct 531

KeyConcepts 531

Chapter13．TheEndangeredSpeciesAct 531

TheKeyNounsandAdjectives 533

TheKeyVerb: Take 534

ListingSpeciesandHabitat:4 535

ListingofSpeciesandConsultation 535

RequiredCooperationandConsultationforListed 537

Exemptionfrom7 538

WhatPrivateActionIsProhibited 542

Takings:9 542

IncidentalTakesAllowed 543

Chapter14．TSCAandFIFRA:RegulatingChemical 547

Chapter14．TSCAandFIFRA:RegulatingChemicalManufacture 547

ManufactureandDistributionTheToxicSubstancesControlAct 548

PartiesRegulated 549

WhatIsaChemicalSubstance? 549

TestingChemicalSubstances 550

ExistingSubstancesThatPresentan 551

RegulatingExistingChemicalSubstances 551

UnreasonableRiskofInjury ImminentlyHazardous ExistingSubstances 552

RegulatingNewChemicalSubstances 553

SignificantNewUses ofExistingSubstances 553

Enforcement 555

TheFederalInsecticide,Fungicide,andRodenticideAct 557

Registration 558

(FIFRA)PesticidesDefined 558

ExportofPesticides 560

Preemption 561

Chapter15．InternationalEnvironmentalLaw 565

andDistributionChapter15．InternationalEnvironmentalLaw 565

TheStructureandLimitationsofInternational 566

EnvironmentalLawTreaties 567

Custom 569

JudicialDecisionsandScholarlyWriting 570

GeneralPrinciplesofLaw 570

InternationalForumsforJustice 572

EquityinInternationalJustice 573

TheApplicationofInternationalEnvironmentalLaw 574

Trans-BoundaryHarm 575

JudicialDecisions 575

AirPollution 575

WaterPollufion 576

NuclearPowerandWeapons 577

Desertification 577

SpeciesandToxins 578

Glossary 581

Glossary 581

Abbreviations 597

Abbreviations 597

TableofCases 603

TableofCases 603

Index 609

Index 609

Amendmentsof 1972