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1 Introduction 1

Background 3

Research on learning strategies 3

Theoretical background in second language acquisition 8

Overview of the book 13

2 A cognitive theory of learning 16

Background 16

Language as a cognitive skill 19

Representation in memory 20

Stages of skill acquisition 25

Complements to the stage-related theory of learning 27

Language comprehension 33

Language production 37

Learning strategies as cognitive skills 42

Definition and classification 43

Strategies as cognitive processes 47

Conclusions 54

3 How cognitive theory applies to second language acquisition 56

Background 57

Declarative knowledge 68

Relationship of cognitive theory to specific constructs 68

Procedural knowledge 73

Stages of skill acquisition 77

Conclusions 83

4 Learning strategies: methods and research 85

A framework for data collection on learning strategies 86

Objective of data collection 86

Language task 88

Temporal relationship 90

Informant training 91

Elicitation procedures 92

Individual versus group data collection 95

Multiple data collection procedures 95

Issues in the use of self-report data 96

Review of research on applications of learning strategies 98

Definition and classification 99

Descriptions of strategy applications 104

Validation of strategy effectiveness 107

Conclusions 112

Study 1: learning strategies used by beginning and intermediate ESL students 114

5 Strategies used by second language learners 114

Study 2: learning strategies used by foreign language students 123

Study 3: listening comprehension strategies used by ESL students 128

Study 4: longitudinal study of learning strategies used by foreign language students for different language tasks 133

Summary 143

Metacognitive and cognitive strategies 144

Declarative versus procedural knowledge 145

Stages of skill acquisition 147

Experts versus novices 149

Conclusions 150

6 Instruction in learning strategies 151

Issues in instruction 152

Separate versus integrated instruction 152

Direct versus embedded instruction 153

Instructional implementation 154

Student characteristics 160

Review of representative studies 165

Instruction in learning strategies for second language acquisition 165

Learning strategy instruction in first language contexts 167

Study 1: learning strategy instruction with students of English as a second language 170

Study 2: learning strategies taught by foreign language instructors 175

Conclusions 184

7 learning strategies: models and materials 187

Instructional models in first language contexts: strategic teaching 187

Instructional models in second language contexts: the Cognitive Academic Language learning Approach 190

Theoretical framework of CALLA 191

The components lf CALLA 193

CALLA lesson plan model 201

Second language learning strategy training materials 204

Learning strategy materials for adult language learners 204

Learning strategy materials for content-based ESL 210

Conclusions 212

8 Summary and conclusions 214

Theoretical developments 214

Research 220

Definitional/classification studies 220

Strategy description 222

Validation studies 224

Glossary 229

References 235

Author index 249

Subject index 253