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1 Learning a first language 1

Milestones and patterns in development 1

Early childhood bilingualism 3

Developmental sequences 4

Summary 9

Theoretical approaches to explaining first language learning 9

Behaviourism：Say what I say 9

Activity: Analysing children’s speech 10

Innatism: It’s all in your mind 15

The interactionist position: A little help from my friends 22

Summary 25

2 Theoretical approaches to explaining second language learning 31

Activity: Learner profiles 32

Behaviourism 35

Innatism 36

Universal Grammar 36

Krashen’s ‘monitor model’ 38

Recent psychological theories 41

Information processing 41

The interactionist position 42

Connectionism 42

Summary 45

3 Factors affecting second language learning 49

Activity: Characteristics of the‘good language learner’ 49

Research on learner characteristics 51

Intelligence 52

Aptitude 53

Personality 54

Motivation and attitudes 56

Learner preferences 58

Learner beliefs 59

Age of acquisition 60

Activity: Comparing child, adolescent, and adult language learners 66

Summary 68

4 Learner language 71

The concept of learner language 72

Activity: The Great Toy Robbery 74

Developmental sequences 76

Grammatical morphemes 76

Negation 77

Questions 78

Activity: More about questions 80

Activity: Learners’questions 80

Relative clauses 83

Reference to past 84

Movement through developmental sequences 85

New ways of looking at first language influence 85

Summary 87

5 Observing second language teaching 91

Comparing instructional and natural settings for language learning 91

Activity: Natural and instructional settings 91

Activity: Classroom comparisons: teacher-student interactions 96

Classroom observation schemes 101

Activity: Observing the kinds of questions you ask your students 102

Feedback in the classroom 103

Activity: Analysing classroom interaction 106

Summary of transcripts 113

Activity: Observing how you respond to students’errors 113

Summary 115

6 Second language learning in the classroom 117

Five proposals for classroom teaching 117

1 Get it right from the beginning 118

2 Say what you mean and mean what you say 122

3 Just listen…and read 128

4 Teach what is teachable 135

5 Get it right in the end 141

The implications of classroom research for teaching 149

Summary 152

7 Popular ideas about language learning: Facts and opinions 161

1 Languages are learned mainly through imitation 161

2 Parents usually correct young children when they make grammatical errors 162

3 People with high IQs are good language learners 163

4 The most important factor in second language acquisition success is motivation 163

5 The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater the likelihood of success 164

7 Teachers should present grammatical rules one at a time 165

6 Most of the mistakes which second language learners make are due to interference from their first language 165

8 Teachers should teach simple structures before complex ones 166

9 Learners’errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to prevent bad habits 167

10 Teachers should use materials that expose students only to language structures they have already been taught 168

11 When learners are allowed to interact freely they learn each others’mistakes 168

12 Students learn what they are taught 169

Conclusion 169

Glossary 171

Bibliography 180

Index 190