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1 Introduction 1

1.1 Preliminary remarks 1

1.2 Some legal basics 4

1.2.1 Sources of international law 4

1.2.2 How international law changes 7

1.2.3 The legal framework as an interconnected whole 9

1.3 Structure of the book 10

1.4 Overview of chapters 10

PART ONE 17

2 'Terrorism' in international law 17

2.1 Developments towards a comprehensive definition of international terrorism 18

2.1.1 Pre-September 11: historical developments 18

2.1.2 Post September 11: a global convention? 20

2.1.3 Specific international conventions 23

2.1.4 Terrorism in armed conflict 25

2.1.5 Regional conventions 26

2.1.6 National measures 30

2.2 Do we know it when we see it? Defining terrorism and customary law 31

2.2.1 Identifying elements of a definition of terrorism from international instruments 32

2.2.2 Other international practice: General Assembly, Security Council and criminal tribunals 37

2.2.3 Meeting the legality threshold: preliminary conclusions on customary international law? 40

2.3 Filling the gap? Terrorism and other international legal norms 41

2.4 Conclusion 44

3International responsibility and terrorism 47

3.1 State responsibility in international law 48

3.1.1 Responsibility of a state for acts of terrorism 48

3.1.2 Responsibility for breach of obligations in the fight against terrorism 55

3.1.3 Consequences of international responsibility for acts of terrorism or for breach of obligations relating to the fight against terrorism 58

3.2 Responsibility of non-state actors in international law 61

3.2.1 Criminal law 62

3.2.2 International humanitarian law 63

3.2.3 Human rights law? 64

3.3 Conclusion 69

PART TWO 73

4 Criminal justice 73

4A THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK 73

4A.1 Crimes, principles of criminal law and jurisdiction 76

4A.1.1 Crimes under international and national law 76

4A.1.2 Relevant principles of criminal law 93

4A.1.3 Jurisdiction to prosecute 99

4A.2 Implementing justice: international cooperation and enforcement 106

4A.2.1 Extradition 107

4A.2.2 Mutual assistance 114

4A.2.3 Cooperation and the Security Council 116

4B CRIMINAL JUSTICE IN PRACTICE POST SEPTEMBER 11 117

4B.1 Prosecutions in practice post 9/11 119

4B.1.1 Paucity of prosecutions 119

4B.1.2 International v. national models of justice post 9/11 124

4B.2 Developments in law and practice on cooperation 131

4B.2.1 International standards and procedures 131

4B.2.2 Streamlining the extradition process? Developments in extradition procedure 134

4B.2.3 Inter-state cooperation in practice post 9/11 138

4B.3 Conclusion 142

5 Peaceful resolution of disputes and use of force 144

5A THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK 144

5A.1 The obligation to resolve international disputes by peaceful means 144

5A.2 The use of force in international law: general rule and exceptions 146

5A.2.1 Self defence 149

5A.2.2 Security Council: maintenance of international peace and security 168

5A.3 Other justifications for the use of force? 178

5A.3.1 Humanitarian intervention 179

5A.3.2 Pro-democratic intervention 183

5A.3.3 Self help: breakdown in international enforcement? 184

5B THE USE OF FORCE POST SEPTEMBER 11 186

5B.1 Afghanistan 186

5B.1.1 Key questions arising 188

5B.2 Iraq 197

5B.2.1 Key questions arising 199

5B.3 United States National Security Strategy 209

5B.3.1 Expanding self defence? 209

5B.3.2 Internationalism, unilateralism or exceptionalism? 211

5B.4 Conclusion 212

PART THREE 217

6 International humanitarian law 217

6A THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK 217

6A.1 When and where IHL applies 218

6A.1.1 Armed conflict: international or non-international 218

6A.1.2 Temporal scope of IHL 222

6A.1.3 Territorial scope of IHL 223

6A.2 Applicable law 223

6A.3 Specific aspects of IHL 228

6A.3.1 Targeting: the principle of distinction and proportionality 228

6A.3.2 Methods and means of warfare: unnecessary suffering 236

6A.3.3 Humanitarian protections 239

6A.3.4 Occupiers' obligations 244

6A.3.5 Responsibility and ensuring compliance under IHL 245

6BINTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW AND THE 'WAR ON TERROR' 249

6B.1 Armed conflicts since 9/11 250

6B.1.1 Armed conflict and 'terrorist groups of global reach' 250

6B.1.2 The Afghan conflict, its nature, beginning and end 255

6B.1.3 The conflict in Iraq and obligations of occupying forces 258

6B.2 The Afghan conflict and particular issues of IHL compliance 259

6B.2.1 Targeting 259

6B.2.2 Methods and means: cluster bombs in Afghanistan 264

6B.2.3 Humanitarian protection of prisoners: executions,torture and inhumane treatment 266

6B.2.4 Transparency, inquiry and onus of proof? 270

6B.3 Conclusion 271

7 International human rights law 274

7A THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK 274

7A.1 Sources and mechanisms of international human rights law 275

7A.2 Scope of application of human rights obligations 282

7A.2.1 Territorial scope of human rights obligations-'the jurisdiction question' 282

7A.2.2 Personal scope of human rights obligations: irrelevance of nationality 289

7A.3BHuman rights in crisis or emergency: accommodating security imperatives 290

7A.3.1 Lawful limitations: treaty 'claw back' clauses 291

7A.3.2 Temporary suspension: derogation clauses 292

7A.3.3 Customary law and emergency 297

7A.3.4 Harmony in conflict? The relationship between IHL and human rights law 298

7A.4 Human rights obligations and terrorism 301

7A.4.1 Protecting human security: positive human rights obligations 301

7A.4.2 State responsibility and human rights violations 305

7A.4.3 Specific rights protected and counter-terrorism 307

7A.5 Conclusion 331

7B HUMAN RIGHTS AND SECURITY POST SEPTEMBER 11 332

7B.1 Executing the 'war on terror' extra-territorially 332

7B.1.1 Arrest and detention of prisoners abroad? 333

7B.1.2 Aerial bombardment in Afghanistan or Iraq? 334

7B.1.3 Targeted killings? 336

7B.1.4 Clarifying and enforcing extra-territorial human rights law? 337

7B.2 The'war'and human rights 339

7B.2.1 The Yemen attack: armed conflict or assassination? 340

7B.3 Derogation and emergency post 9/11 344

7B.3.1 An emergency threatening the life of the nation? 345

7B.3.2 A valid process of derogation? 346

7B.3.3 Linkage between measures taken and the emergency? 347

7B.4 'Terrorism' and the legality principle 348

7B.4.1 Terrorism, criminal responsibility and nullum crimen sine lege 350

7B.4.2 Terrorism, penalties and nulla poena sine lege 352

7B.5 Torture and inhuman treatment: Abu Ghraib and beyond 353

7B.6 Indefinite detention 355

7B.7 Asylum and refugee exclusion 357

7B.8 Cooperation in criminal matters and human rights post 9/11 358

7B.9 'Proscribing dissent' - expression, association, assembly 364

7B.10 Profiling, protecting and anti-discrimination 366

7B.11 The role of the judiciary as guardian of human rights post 9/11? 368

7B.11.1 'Listing' proscribed organisations 368

7B.11.2 International 'cooperation': undermining the judicial function 370

7B.11.3 Independence and impartiality impaired: 'special' courts 370

7B.12 Accountability 371

7B.13 Conclusion 373

8Case study-Guantanamo Bay detentions under international human rights and humanitarian law 379

8A GUANTANAMO BAY AND ITS DETAINEES: THE BASIC FACTS 380

8A.1.1 Treatment of detainees in Guantanamo Bay 382

8A.1.2 Seeking justice in US and other courts 385

8A.1.3 Overview of military procedures governing detention 387

8A.1.4 Trial by military commission 388

8B APPLICATION OF HUMANITARIAN AND HUMAN RIGHTS LAW TO DETAINEES IN GUANTANAMO BAY 390

8B.2.1 The framework: international humanitarian law 391

8B.2.2 The framework: international human rights law 392

8B.3 Categories of detainees 396

8B.3.1 Entitlement to POW status 398

8B.3.2 'Civilian' detainees 401

8B.3.3 Persons not covered by GC III or GC IV? 403

8B.4 Specific rights of detainees under IHL and IHRL 404

8B.4.1 Existence of a lawful basis for detention 404

8B.4.2 Status determinations 407

8B.4.3 Information on reasons for arrest and detention 411

8B.4.4 Judicial oversight of detention 413

8B.4.5 Prosecution-fair trial rights 417

8B.5 Standards of protection compared: implications of POW status? 428

8B.5.1 Rights regarding interrogation 428

8B.5.2 Indefinite detention-repatriation 429

8C RESPONDING TO GUANTANAMO 430

8C.6 The obligations of third states 430

8C.7 The international response to the Guantanamo detentions 434

8C.8 Guantanamo Bay: implications and potential repercussions? 437

8C.9 Conclusion 441

9 Conclusion 443

9.1 September 11 as opportunity and the 'war on terror' response 443

9.2 The legal framework 445

9.3 The 'war on terror' and international legality: some essential characteristics 447

9.4 Early reactions and key challenges: is the pendulum swinging and where might it stop? 449

Bibliography 453

Index 465