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1 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE ENVIRONMENT 1

1 Introduction 1

2 Lawmaking Processes and Sources of Law 12

3 Overview 37

2 INTERNATIONAL GOVERNANCE AND THE FORMULATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAW AND POLICY 43

1 Introduction 43

2 The Development of International Environmental Policy 48

3 The UN and Environmental Governance 58

4 Other International Organizations 71

5 International Regulatory Regimes 84

6 Scientific Organizations 99

7 Non- Governmental Organizations 100

8 Conclusions 103

3 RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OF STATES CONCERNING PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT 106

1 Introduction 106

2 Sustainable Development： Legal Implications 115

3 Principles of Global Environmental Responsibility 128

4 Prevention of Pollution and Environmental Harm 137

5 Conservation and Sustainable Use of Natural Resources 190

6 Military Activities and the Environment 205

7 Conclusions 208

4 INTERSTATE ENFORCEMENT： STATE RESPONSIBILITY， TREATY COMPLIANCE， AND DISPUTE SETTLEMENT 211

1 Introduction 211

2 State Responsibility for Environmental Damage 214

3 Treaty Compliance 237

4 Settlement of International Environmental Disputes 250

5 Conclusions 266

5 NON-STATE ACTORS： ENVIRONMENTAL RIGHTS， LIABILITY， AND CRIMES 268

1 Introduction 268

2 Human Rights and the Environment 271

3 Transboundary Environmental Rights 303

4 Harmonization of Environmental Liability 316

5 Corporate Environmental Accountability 326

6 Environmental Crimes 329

7 Conclusions 334

6 CLIMATE CHANGE AND ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION 335

1 Introduction 335

2 Transboundary Air Pollution 342

3 Protecting the Ozone Layer 349

4 The Climate Change Regime 356

5 Conclusions 377

7 THE LAW OF THE SEA AND PROTECTION OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT 379

1 Introduction 379

2 Customary Law and the 1982 UNCLOS 386

3 Regional Protection of the Marine Environment 390

4 Marine Pollution from Ships 398

5 Pollution Incidents and Emergencies at Sea 423

6 Responsibility and Liability for Marine Pollution Damage 430

7 Conclusions 441

8 INTERNATIONAL REGULATION OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES 443

1 Introduction 443

2 International Regulation of Toxic Chemicals 445

3 Protection of the Marine Environment from Toxic Substances 451

4 International Trade in Hazardous Substances 473

5 Conclusions 486

9 NUCLEAR ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT 488

1 Introduction 488

2 The International Regulation of Nuclear Energy 492

3 Control of Transboundary Nuclear Risks 508

4 State Responsibility for Nuclear Damage 516

5 Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage 520

6 Conclusions 533

10 INTERNATIONAL WATERCOURSES： ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND SUSTAINABLE USE 535

1 Introduction 535

2 Protection of Watercourse Environments 547

3 Regional Cooperation and Environmental Regulation 572

4 Conclusions 580

11 CONSERVATION OF NATURE， ECOSYSTEMS， AND BIODIVERSITY 583

1 Introduction 583

2 Concepts of Nature Conservation and Natural Resources 585

3 The Role of Law in the Protection of Nature 593

4 Codification and Development of International Law on Nature Protection 602

5 The Convention on Biological Diversity 612

6 Conclusions 648

12 CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY AND LAND-BASED SPECIES AND BIODIVERSITY 650

1 Introduction 650

2 Implementation of Principles and Strategies through Conservation Treaties 651

3 Signficance and Effectiveness of the Major Global Wildlife Conventions 671

4 Post-UNCED Instruments for Conservation of Nature and Biodiversity 692

5 The Regional Approach 696

6 Coordination of Conventions and Organs 697

7 Conclusions 698

13 CONSERVATION OF MARINE LIVING RESOURCES AND BIODIVERSITY 702

1 Introduction 702

2 Jurisdiction over Fisheries and Marine Mammals 706

3 The Development of International Fisheries Regimes 711

4 The 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 714

5 Post-UNCLOS Developments 730

6 Conservation of Marine Biodiversity 744

7 Conclusions 751

14 INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 753

1 Introduction 753

2 The Multilateral Trading System 756

3 Multilateral Environmental Agreements and Trade Restrictions 766

4 Trade Restrictions to Protect Resources beyond National Jurisdiction 769

5 Trade Restrictions to Protect the Domestic Environment 778

6 Pollution Havens： Trade Restrictions to Improve the Environment of Other Countries 788

7 The Export of Hazardous Substances and Wastes 793

8 Environmental Taxes 796

9 The TRIPS Agreement and the Biodiversity Convention 801

10 Conclusions 809

Bibliography 811

Index 833