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1 Introduction 1

2 Earlier thinking on transfer 6

2.1 Languages(and dialects)in contact 6

2.2 Transfer as a controversy in language teaching 15

3 Some fundamental problems in the study of transfer 25

3.1 Problems of definition 25

3.2 Problems of comparison 28

3.3 Problems of prediction 35

3.4 Problems of generalization 43

4 Discourse 48

4.1 Politeness 49

4.2 Coherence 58

4.3 Discourse transfer and other factors 64

4.4 Summary and conclusion 69

5 Semantics 71

5.1 Propositional semantics 71

5.2 Lexical semantics 77

5.3 Summary and conclusion 83

6 Syntax 85

6.1 Word order 85

6.2 Relative clauses 97

6.3 Negation 104

6.4 Summary and conclusion 110

7 Phonetics,phonology,and writing systems 112

7.1 General versus specific predictions 112

7.2 Phonetic and phonological transfer 113

7.3 Pronunciation,language universals,and typologies 120

7.4 Writing systems 124

7.5 Summary and conclusion 127

8 Nonstructural factors in transfer 129

8.1 Individual variation 130

8.2 Transfer and age of acquisition 136

8.3 Transfer,linguistic awareness,and social context 140

9 Looking back and looking ahead 151

9.1 Some caveats 151

9.2 Some conclusions 152

9.3 Some areas for further research 155

10 Implications for teaching 157

Glossary 165

References 171

Language index 197

Author index 200

Subject index 205