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1.INTRODUCTION 1

Reasons for Studying Fluctuations in Semi-conductors 1

Classification of Various Sources of Noise 2

2.CHARACTERIZATION OF NOISINESS IN TWO-AND FOUR-TERMINAL NETWORKS 3

Noise Characterization in Two-terminal Networks 3

Noise Characterization in Four-terminal Networks 4

Noise-measuring Equipment 6

Noise Measurements 8

3.MATHEMATICAL METHODS 11

Probability Distributions,Averages,Correlation 11

Fourier Analysis of Fluctuating Quantities 14

Carson’s Theorem 17

The Langevin Equation for One Variable 17

The Langevin Equation for Several Variables 20

4.GENERATION-RECOMBINATION NOISE IN THE CASE OF THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM 22

Noise Caused by Resistance Fluctuations 22

Simple Treatment of the Problem:Older Theories 23

Carrier Density Fluctuations 26

Ambipolar Effects 31

Processes Leading to a Series of Time Constants 37

Equivalent Circuit Methods 39

Comparison with Experiments 43

5.FLICKER NOISE IN SEMI-CONDUCTOR MATERIAL 46

General Characteristics of Flicker Noise 46

Experiments Concerning the Nature of l/f Noise 48

Field Effect 50

Application of the Surface Model to Flicker Noise 54

Other Theories 60

6.NOISE IN PHOTO-CONDUCTORS 65

The Fundamental Noise Problem in Photo-conductors 65

Sensitivity Limit of Photo-conductors:Noise Figure 70

Discussion of Several Examples 73

Discussion of Practical Photo-conductors 77

7.NOISE IN SEMI-CONDUCTOR RESISTORS 83

Linear Semi-conductor Resistance Devices 83

Non-linear Semi-conductor Resistors:Thermistors 84

8.SHOT NOISE IN SEMI-CONDUCTOR DIODES 86

Introduction 86

The Corpuscular Approach 89

Modulation Effects 94

The Collective Approach 96

Experimental Verification of the Theory 106

Noise in the Avalanche Region of a p-n Junction Charaoteristic 108

9.SHOT NOISE IN JUNCTION TRANSISTORS 113

The Low-frequency Corpuscular Approach 114

General Corpuscular Approach in Transistors 119

Modulation Effccts 123

The Collective Approach 124

Experimental Verification of the Theory 127

10.FLICKER NOISE IN DIODES AND TRANSISTORS 137

General Characteristics of Flicker Noise 137

Flicker Noisc in Junction Diodes 138

Flicker Noise in Transistors 143

11.APPLICATIONS:MINIMUM NOISE CONSIDERATIONS 149

Noise in Semi-conductor Photocells 149

Low-noise Transistor Circuits 151

Diodes as Mixers and as Parametric Amphfiers 157

Index 165