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Ⅰ INTRODUCTION 1

1 The Role of Programming Languages 3

1.1 Toward Higher-Level Languages 4

1.2 Problems of Scale 8

1.3 Programming Paradigms 11

1.4 Language Implementation:Bridging the Gap 18

EXERCISES 21

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES 23

2 Language Description:Syntactic Structure 25

2.1 Expression Notations 28

2.2 Abstract Syntax Trees 31

2.3 Lexical Syntax 33

2.4 Context-Free Grammars 35

2.5 Grammars for Expressions 41

2.6 Variants of Grammars 46

EXERCISES 49

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES 52

Ⅱ IMPERATIVE PROGRAMMING 55

3.1 The Need for Structured Ptogramming 59

3 Statements:Structured Programming 59

3.2 Syntax-Directed Control Flow 63

3.3 Design Considerations:Syntax 72

3.4 Handling Special Cases in Loops 77

3.5 Programming with Invariants 80

3.6 Proof Rules for Partial Correctness 86

3.7 Control flow in C 90

EXERCISES 94

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES 99

4 Types:Data Representation 101

4.1 The Role of Types 102

4.2 Basic Types 107

4.3 Arrays:Sequences of Elements 111

4.4 Records:Named Fields 117

4.5 Unions and Variant Records 120

4.6 Sets 123

4.7 Pointers:Efficiency and Dynamic Allocation 125

4.8 Two String Tables 133

4.9 Types and Error Checking 136

EXERCISES 143

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES 146

5 Procedure Activations 147

5.1 Introduction to Procedures 148

5.2 Parameter-Passing Methods 155

5.3 Scope Rules for Names 160

5.4 Nested Scopes in the Source Text 166

5.5 Activation Records 172

5.6 Lexical Scope:Procedures as in C 181

5.7 Lexical Scope:Nested Procedures and Pascal 190

EXERCISES 198

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES 202

Ⅲ OBJECT-ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 205

6 Groupings of Data and Operations 209

6.1 Constructs for Program Structuring 210

6.2 Information Hiding 217

6.3 Program Design with Modules 220

6.4 Modules and Defined Types 229

6.5 Class Declarations in C++ 232

6.6 Dynamic Allocation in C++ 238

6.7 Templates:Parameterized Types 244

6.8 Implementation of Objects in C++ 245

EXERCISES 248

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES 251

7 Object-Oriented Programming 253

7.1 What is an Object? 253

7.2 Object-Oriented Thinking 256

7.3 Inheritance 260

7.4 Object-Oriented Programming in C++ 267

7.5 An Extended C++ Example 274

7.6 Derived Classes and Information Hiding 281

7.7 Objects in Smalltalk 285

7.8 Smalltalk Objects hava a Self 291

EXERCISES 294

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES 299

Ⅳ FUNCTIONAL PROGRAMMING 301

8 Elements of Functional Programming 305

8.1 A Little Language of Expressions 306

8.2 Types:Values and Operations 313

8.3 Function Declarations 318

8.4 Approaches to Expression Evaluation 321

8.5 Lexical Scope 327

8.6 Type Checking 331

EXERCISES 335

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES 339

9 Functional Programming in a Typed Language 341

9.1 Exploring a List 342

9.2 Function Declaration by Cases 346

9.3 Functions as First-Class Values 351

9.4 ML:Implicit Types 357

9.5 Data Types 360

9.6 Exception Handling in ML 367

9.7 Little Quilt in Standard ML 369

EXERCISES 380

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES 383

10 Functional Programming with Lists 385

10.1 Scheme,a Dialect of Lisp 386

10.2 The Structure of Lists 392

10.3 List Manipulation 396

10.4 A Motivating Example:Differentiation 404

10.5 Simplification of Expressions 409

10.6 Storage Allocation for Lists 413

EXERCISES 417

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES 421

Ⅴ OTHER PARADIGMS 423

11 Logic Programming 425

11.1 Computing with Relations 426

11.2 Introduction to Prolog 430

11.3 Data Structures in Prolog 438

11.4 Programming Techniques 442

11.5 Control in Prolog 450

11.6 Cuts 461

EXERCISES 470

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES 472

12 An Introduction to Concurrent Programming 475

12.1 Parallelism in Hardware 476

12.2 Streams:Implicit Synchronization 478

12.3 Concurrency as Interleaving 482

12.4 Liveness Properties 485

12.5 Safe Access to Shared Data 489

12.6 Concurrency in Ada 491

12.7 Synchronized Access to Shared Variables 498

EXERCISES 507

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES 510

Ⅵ LANGUAGE DESCRIPTION 513

13 Semantic Methods 515

13.1 Synthesized Attributes 517

13.2 Attribute Grammars 520

13.3 Natural Semantics 523

13.4 Denotational Semantics 529

13.5 A Calculator in Scheme 530

13.6 Lexically Scoped Lambda Expressions 532

13.7 An Interpreter 535

13.8 An Extension:Recursive Functions 542

EXERCISES 545

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES 546

14 Static Types and the Lambda Calculus 547

14.1 Equallty of Pure Lambda Terms 549

14.2 Substitution Revisited 554

14.3 Computation with Pure Lambda Terms 556

14.4 Programming Constructs as Lambda-Terms 561

14.5 The Typed Lambda Calculus 566

14.6 Polymorphic Types 569

EXERCISES 576

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES 577

15.1 Pascal:A Teaching Language 579

15 A Look at Some Languages 579

15.2 C:Syetems Programming 583

15.3 C++:A Range of Programming Styles 591

15.4 Smalltalk,the Language 594

15.5 Standard ML 598

15.6 Scheme,a Dialect of Lisp 602

15.7 Prolog 607

Bibliography 613

Credits 627

Index 629