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SECTION 1 Survey 1

1 Testing,testing...What is a language test？ 3

Understanding language testing 4

Types of test 5

Test purpose 6

The criterion 7

The test-criterion relationship 10

Conclusion 11

2 Communication and the design of language tests 13

Discrete point tests 13

Integrative and pragmatic tests 14

Communicative language tests 16

Models of communicative ability 17

Conclusion 21

3 The testing cycle 23

Understanding the constraints 24

Test content 25

Test method 26

Authenticity of response 27

Fixed and constructed response formats 29

Test specifications 31

Test trials 32

Conclusion 33

4 The rating process 35

Establishing a rating procedure 36

The problem with raters 37

Establishing a framework for making judgements 38

Rating scales 40

Holistic and analytic ratings 43

Rater training 44

Conclusion 44

5 Validity:testing the test 47

Threats to test validity 50

Test content 50

Test method and test construct 52

The impact of tests 53

Conclusion 54

6 Measurement 55

Introduction 55

Measurement 56

Quality control for raters 56

Investigating the properties of individual test items 59

Norm-referenced and criterion-referenced measurement 62

New approaches to measurement 64

Conclusion 65

7 The social character of language tests 67

Introduction 67

The institutional character of assessment 68

Assessment and social policy 68

Assessment and educational policy 69

The social responsibility of the language tester 70

Ethical language testing 72

Accountability 72

Washback 73

Test impact 74

Codes of professional ethics for language testers 75

Critical language testing 76

Conclusion 77

8 New directions-and dilemmas？ 79

Computers and language testing 79

Technology and the testing of speaking 81

Dilemmas:whose performance？ 83

SECTION 2 Readings 87

SECTION 3 References 121

SECTION 4 Glossary 131